Beyond the View: The Hudson River School and Religious Landscapes

    More than simply depicting the landscape of their beloved country, the first American landscape painters were concerned with expressing the goodness and transcendence of God through their work. Their paintings intentionally served moral and religious purposes. Deeply shaped by Protestant Christianity, these artists believed that art was made relevant through its connection to religion. For the Hudson River School painters, the physical beauty of the natural world was inseparable from the glory of God. They held strongly to the conviction that all beauty points to God and that He could be seen in the order found in nature. Therefore, the aesthetic quality of their work served to remind the viewer of God by leading them into spiritual contemplation. Viewing beauty and truth as connected, they hoped to inspire both reverence and humility in the viewer while also communicating truths about the Christian faith. Notably, the prevalence of light in their works served as evidence of God’s presence and grace in the landscapes they painted. Similarly, mountains made regular appearances in these works as a symbol of God’s power. As the American landscape became increasingly more developed, these artists sought to be agents of unity between nature and civilization and believed that this work had both moral and religious significance. These paintings represent a time when Americans viewed their land and the world around them through a primarily religious lens, a view that declined as industrialization and science caused an increase in secularism.

Jasper Francis Cropsey, Autumn–On the Hudson River, 1860, Oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art, 1963.9.1

This painting, bathed in light and defined by great detail and an infinite sense of space, is a primary example of the goals of the Hudson River School. The light streaming from the center of the painting and illuminating the entire scene serves as a reminder of God’s providence and presence in His creation. While the foreground is wild, natural land, the landscape becomes progressively more developed as it approaches the distant river. Cropsey sought to communicate harmony between nature and civilization and to present autumn as a time of fruitfulness rather than death. Cropsey’s optimism was likely fueled by his view that God was present in this place, shown through the light falling on everything in sight and the small clusters of three white flowers in the bottom left corner that he often used to represent the Trinity.

Frederic Church, Heart of the Andes, 1859, Oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 09.95

Although the Hudson River painters are known for their depictions of the American landscape, their understanding of God’s transcendence was not limited to the landscape of their home country. This painting, inspired by Church’s travels in Ecuador, demonstrates the use of an atmospheric depth often used in the Hudson River School as a visual representation of transcendence. The deep field and high horizon continue to draw the viewer into the unfolding landscape and eventually past it into infinite sky. By leading the viewer’s attention in this way, Church demonstrates that nature’s significance is found in its ability to help the viewer contemplate spiritual truths. In the bottom left corner of the painting, Church makes a more direct connection to Christianity through the presence of a cross and the figures gathered around it.

Frederic Church, Twilight, “Short Arbiter ‘Twixt Day and Night”, 1850, Oil on canvas, Newark Museum of Art

This naturalistic painting of a landscape at dusk is representative of the way that the Hudson River School sought to represent the natural characteristics of a landscape while also viewing these characteristics as a means for communicating spiritual truths. The painting’s title is a reference to Satan’s return to Eden in Milton’s Paradise Lost. While creating a beautifully striking scene through contrasting light and dark, Church turns the familiar experience of watching the sun disappear behind the horizon into a contemplation of the conflict between good and evil. He reminds the viewer that awe of nature and contemplation of God can be one and the same experience.

Asher Durand, Kindred Spirits, 1849, Oil on canvas, Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, 2010.106

This painting, serving as a tribute to Thomas Cole and William Cullen Bryant, represents a key relationship between human figures and the landscape. Although the subject of the painting is the relationship between these two figures, they do not dominate the landscape. They are presented as a small part of the unfolding scene. The smallness of these figures is reflected throughout the Hudson River School in which human figures are often minuscule and difficult to locate within the vast landscapes. The smallness of human figures helped the viewer to find their place in the painting, making them feel small in comparison to the landscape. Through minimizing the individual, Hudson River artists sought to communicate the human need for salvation. This sense of smallness was a reminder of human insufficiency in the midst of a painting that served as a reminder of the power and goodness of God.

Thomas Cole, View on the Catskill–Early Autumn, 1836-37, Oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 95.13.3

In this painting, Cole depicts the view from the doorstep of his home. As the Catskill and Canajoharie Railroad expanded, he mourned the destruction of this beautiful landscape. Eventually, he relied on his previous sketches to finish this work as that natural beauty before him began to disappear. The mother and child in the lower left corner serve as a reminder of Mary and Christ and the white horse farther to the left would have been recognized as a symbol of purity. Cole sought to remind Americans of the value of their beautiful landscape before it was too late. Through this painting, Cole makes an appeal to the viewer to remember the beauty of nature as a source of morality and an opportunity for contemplation. The destruction of the American wilderness was devastating to Cole, who believed that nature revealed truths about the Creator just as much as religious practices.

Worthington Whittredge, The Camp Meeting, 1874, Oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 13.39.1

In this panoramic painting of an outdoor camp meeting, Whittredge draws a direct connection between the beauty of the Catskill mountains and early religious practices in the United States. By 1874, these religious gatherings had become less frequent because of an increase in urbanization. In this painting, Whittredge creates the same effect of infinite space that was characteristic of the Hudson River School. Whittredge presents nature as a place where God can be experienced. It seems clear that the people in this scene are experiencing God as light, usually used to represent God’s presence, providence, and grace, shines down on them. Finally, Whittredge uses the late afternoon light to evoke a sense of nostalgia which reminded Americans of a time when people went out into nature to worship and contemplate God’s truth.

Thomas Cole, View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton, Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm (The Oxbow), 1836, Oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 08.228

While Hudson River landscapes are often characterized by a sense of unity, Cole uses this painting to depict conflict. He contrasts storm and clear sky, wilderness and civilization. Although Cole’s painting represents great conflict, it also serves as a proposition for unity. The artist is present at the center of the conflict communicating that nature and civilization can find reconciliation through art. Almost directly above him, a hill in the distance is marked with the Hebrew letters for “Shaddai”. In this way, Cole reminds the viewer that God is the original artist of the scene before them and that his work as an artist is a reflection of God’s original creation. Cole not only represents his desire to unite nature and civilization through his artistic work but also defines this as a spiritual and moral task by connecting his work to God’s.

References:

Cooper, James. Knights of the Brush: The Hudson River School and the Moral Landscape. New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1999. 

Veith, Gene. Painters of Faith: The Spiritual Landscape in Nineteenth-Century America. Washington DC: Regnery Publishing, 2001. 

Luminous Light

What is luminism? How do Gifford’s landscape paintings differ from those of his processors? What makes them different? The Hudson River School was a group of New York-based landscape painters that emerged during the mid-1800s. On many occasions, the artists paid special attention to the places they traveled and used their field sketches to produce oil paintings. While many of these American painters created paintings from similar places, each of them had their own distinct styles and characteristics. Luminism, one of the unique styles, focuses specifically on the effects of light. Stanford Robinson Gifford (1823) was one of the artists among the group of Luminsists. Rather than focusing on a central feature or a piece of iconography like many of the other painters, Gifford uses illuminating light to accentuate the landscape's atmosphere. He creates hazy veils of moisture that unify the tone. Oftentimes, in his paintings, the viewer is placed right in front of the source of light and they become submerged in the silent authority of nature. 

Note, in the following groupings of paintings, how Gifford uses the effects of light differently than those of his processors such as Asher Durand and Thomas Cole. Gifford’s use of light is seen to illuminate throughout his paintings, casting a unique effect over the whole. Light transverses across the scene creating an effect that almost places the viewer in a hypnotic trance. Thomas Cole and Asher Durand have different approaches to their landscape paintings. Their use of light is often subtle and helps emphasize a theme. Light is used to cast shadows and effect, but the dramatic contrast is significantly less and light does not stand out as a central feature.

Stanford Robinson Gifford, A Gorge in the Mountains (Kauterskill Clove), 

1862, Oil on canvas, 48 x 39 7/8 in. (121.9 x 101.3 cm), 15.30.62

A Gorge in the Mountains, one of Gifford’s vertical landscape paintings, provides a spectacular view of Kauterskill clove, which is in the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York. Gifford began painting the piece in 1861 and finished it later the following year. Originally, the painting was titled, Kauterskill Falls, yet it was said to be formed on the actual Haines Falls in the Catskills rather than Kauterskills Falls, hence the name was changed. Imposed with a deeper spiritual meaning, golden light transverses across the painting highlighting the natural and physical features of Kauterskill clove. The viewer is positioned right in front of the source of light and becomes submerged in the nature of the scene. 

Thomas Cole, View on the Catskill—Early Autumn, 

1836–37, Oil on canvas, 39 x 63 in. (99.1 x 160cm), 95.13.3

View on the Catskill—Early Autumn, portrays Thomas Cole’s enthrallment with the valleys that rim the Hudson River in upstate New York. The painting resembles a view of Catskill Creek which is near the town he lived in. A river flows in the foreground of the painting while blurred mountains stand in the background. Trees surround the small river and the sun hidden behind the large tree casts a calm light over the image. By 1837, the Canajoharie and Catskill Railroad was constructed through the landscape destroying the nature at the heart of the scenery. Thus, the painting holds a deep symbolic meaning and is one of Cole’s most significant pieces. The warm colors create a calm Autumn glow that draws the viewer to recognize the beauty of the setting before it was redeveloped by human activity. 

Stanford Robinson Gifford, Tivioli, 

1870, Oil on canvas, 26 3/8 x 50 3/8 in. (67 x 128 cm), 12.205.1

Gifford, an advent traveler, visited Tivoli, Italy in 1856 on his first trip abroad. Years later, he was drawn back as he found it to be one of the best views. The scene depicts the exploration towards Rome just upstream of the valley of the Aniene River and past the Cascatelle waterfalls flowing from the arches of the villa of Maecenas. A deep gorge resides in the middle creating a divide between the two sides. On the left houses reside along the cliff with the towers of Tivoli while on the right a group of trees stand in the foreground. Deep beyond in the background, an abundance of light and a hazy golden hue transverses across the horizon. Gifford uses the effects of light to create a rich, glowing atmosphere that unifies the scene.  

Asher Brown Durand, Landscape—Scene from “Thanatopsis”, 

1850, Oil on canvas, 39 1/2 x 61 in. (100.3 x 154.9 cm), 11.156

Following the death of the famous painter, Thomas Cole, Asher Durand was part of the second generation of painters that came from the Hudson River School. He was the epitome of the fresh ideas of naturalism and made seasonal trips to the hills along the Hudson River. Landscape—The scene from "Thanatopsis” is inspired by William Cullen Bryant’s poem “Thanatopsis” which highlights nature and explains the naturality of death. The painting depicts a beautiful land with a variety of nature. There is a sun deep in the horizon that creates a lightened presence over the painting. Drawing from the poem, themes surrounding the presence of nature and death emerge outwardly.

Thomas Cole, View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton, 

Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm—The Oxbow, 

1836, Oil on canvas, 51 1/2 x 76 in. (130.8 x 193 cm), 08.228

Charged with a deep moral significance, this painting by Thomas Cole is known for having many different interpretations. During a time of emerging industrialization, there were many conflicts surrounding the idea of land and nature. Cole’s inspiration is drawn from his trip to Europe. He responded to the criticisms that Americans were inattentive to their beautiful scenery. This landscape painting presents the uniqueness of America and expresses the beauty within it. He contrasts the unruly wilderness with the growing cultivation of land in America. A calm light is cast on one side, while on the other dark clouds diminish the light. The land in the east is orderly, productive, and peaceful while the land in the west remains disorderly and evokes emotions of danger or fear. 

Stanford Robinson Gifford, Isola Bella in Lago Maggiore, 

1871, Oil on canvas, 20 1/4 x 36in. (51.4 x 91.4cm), 21.115.1

Gifford visited Isola Bella twice (twelve years apart) and painted the site many times, revising it to his ideal vision. He found it to be the most perfect of all the Italian lakes. The painting portrays a view of a “perfect” sunset on Lake Maggiore. Dark mountains stand on the left side while a dimmer group of mountains fades deeper in the background. An illumination of light grazes across the sky creating a glow over the painting. The light is also reflected in the water. Gifford’s use of illuminating hues that glow across the painting helps draw the focus to the unique effects of light rather than the detailed representation of the terrain. 

Asher Brown Durand, Summer Afternoon, 

1865, Oil on canvas, 22 1/2 x 35 in. (57.2 x 88.9 cm), 15.30.60

Asher Durand, a popular painter in landscapes, paints a simple summer afternoon with a misty glaze that highlights the subtle changes that take place in nature. Skillfully, Durand uses specific techniques to depict these simple changes. In the painting, the sun casts a reflection on the water while the trees stand tall on a land of green grass. The trees tenuously reflect off the water as the scene is very still and calm. The sun’s light does not suppress across the whole painting and resides mostly in the left half. The subtle use of light emphasizes the late afternoon feel and provides a peaceful presence. 

Stanford Robinson Gifford, Hunter Mountain, Twilight, 

1866, Oil on canvas, 30 5/8 x 54 1/8 in. (77.8 x 137.5 cm). 

Terra Foundation for American Art

As one of America's most accomplished landscape painters, Gifford provides atmospheric views that are luminous and glow outwardly. Hunter Mountain Twilight expresses a sense of national sorrow as well as the emerging concern for the conservation of nature. Painted just after the Civil War, Gifford draws from his experience in the army and addresses the growing distress with the development of land. The painting depicts a view of Hunter Mountain which resides in Hudson, New York. The tree stumps emphasize the development of land and how nature is degraded in the process. In 1860 America, tree stumps symbolized the destruction of the wilderness as well as the devastation caused by the Civil War. As light transverses across the horizon, the blue haze cast on the mountain creates a contrast against the glowing sky. 

African Children in European Portraits: Rethinking Depictions of Wealth, Race, and Slavery

Portraits reveal how we see ourselves and others. Many portraits from seventeenth-and eighteenth-century Europe show a sitter, often a woman, dressed in fine clothes and placed in a grand environment. These women are the focal points of the composition, and artists use shape, texture, and value to emphasize their importance. It is easy to be overwhelmed by their beauty. However, we must rethink these works as more than just depictions of beautiful, wealthy women. A closer look at the history behind them shows that artists were painting a pervasive aspect of European culture: colonialism.  

At the time of these portraits, Europe thrived off its access to the Atlantic World and the African continent. Resources obtained through slave labor built up European elites. Colonialism was a source of pride, and owning slaves was a form of mastery. Many trafficked children came to work as slaves for their European owners and were depicted in art. These slaves are never the focus of portraits. Rather, they are repeatedly painted as very dark skinned and surrounded by trappings of wealth. They are often wearing a turban or collar, performing an act of service, and sometimes holding an animal. These themes are not accidental. Artists painted these portraits to make a visual argument about the value of skin color, contrasting the slaves’ darkness to their mistresses’ whiteness. These are portraits are advocating for racial inferiority and superiority. 

This collection seeks to reveal how portraiture reflected European consciousness, identity, and ideas on race. Even today, we can learn from these works by recognizing our own cultural blind spots and the ways we still dehumanize people. And perhaps, we can give dignity to others just by looking and noticing those who often go unseen. 

Anthony van Dyck, Princess Henrietta of Lorraine, 1634

Oil on canvas, 84 x 50 in

Ascension Number: 88028826

English Heritage, Kenwood, London

The black page became a constant image for depicting domestic slaves of African origin in European art. First popularized by Titian’s seminal portrait of Laura Dianti and a black slave from the sixteenth century, the motif spread throughout the continent in the following decades. In this portrait, van Dyck depicts Henrietta of Lorraine in full-length as she is attended by a black boy who carries red flowers and looks at her adoringly. Van Dyck’s work served as inspiration for following portraits of the same subject matter. Other portraits of women and slaves followed common pictorial conventions–the woman facing towards the viewer, a slave child exotically dressed, and the child giving some sort of offering to their mistress or performing an act of service. This portrait is also important as an early example of using a black figure as a foil to the beauty of a person of rank. 

Jan Mijtens, Portrait of Margaretha van Raephorst, 1668

Oil on canvas, 53 x 40.3 in

Ascension Number: SK-A-285

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

The tradition of depicting black slave children in portraits also spread to the Netherlands. However, Dutch painters often included these figures for stylistic or iconographic purposes. The boy in this portrait by Mijtens is not thought to be a real slave. Rather, art historians believe he serves as a symbolic foil. Including slaves was an indication of someone’s wealth and nobility because only the rich could afford to have a slave dressed up in silk, lace, and pearls. Whether an actual person or simply a representation, black children were used to elevate their owners economically, as well as racially. The representation of skin color in art became a weapon. Mijten’s inclusion of this black boy intentionally serves as a device for skin contrast, with the idea that blackness best heightens the superiority of the sitter’s whiteness. 

Francois de Troy, Portrait of Elizabeth-Charlotte of Bavaria, Duchess of Orleans, 1680

Oil on canvas, 58.2 x 69.6 in

Ascension Number: MV 2162

Musee National du Château de Versailles

De Troy’s portrait of the Duchess of Orleans keeps with the European tradition of representing women in lavish dress in grand settings. Swaths of red, royal blue, and gold fabric dominate the canvas–colors only members of the aristocracy could afford–and the pearls and fur add to the painting’s extravagance. The scene behind the duchess is a vast garden with a fountain, possibly representing Versailles. At this time, outdoor settings were becoming increasingly popular in portraiture. The outdoors suggest that the place of women is in nature and alludes to the idea that women, like nature, are beautiful and pure. The duchesses’ powdered white skin is further emphasized by the dark values around her. The black skin of the slave boy who obediently offers her a bowl of flowers only heightens this contrast.

Pierre Mignard, Louise de Kerouaille, Duchess of Portsmouth, 1682

Oil on canvas, 47 ½ x 37 ½ in

Ascension Number: NPG 497

National Portrait Gallery, London

Like de Troy’s portrait of the Duchess of Orleans, Mignard depicts the Duchess of Portsmouth in similar fashion. Our eyes are immediately drawn to her exposed white skin and the fabrics in her dress. The duchess is accompanied by a black girl, who offers her mistress a conch shell full of pearls. Pearls indicate great wealth, but they are also common accessories for blacks in portraiture. In a gesture typical of these portraits, the duchess wraps her arm around the girl’s shoulder. This is an act of care; however, it also relays possession and ownership. Interestingly, the women in these portraits are never paying attention to their slave. They are always looking directly at the viewer, and the slave children are gazing up towards their mistress. This implied line tells us where our eyes should be—not on the slave, but on the beauty of their white owner. 

  

Godfrey Kneller, Portrait of Louise de Kerouaille, 1684

Oil on canvas, 143.3 x 236.2 in

Goodwood House, Goodwood Collection, United Kingdom

 

Two years after Mignard’s portrait, Kneller, a German-British painter, portrays the Duchess of Portsmouth in dramatic fashion. In a portrait almost twenty feet tall, she dominates our viewing space with her sheer size and the red hue of her dress. As the mistress of Charles the II, we are meant to admire her sexual appeal, which Kneller emphasizes by exposing her bodice. Kneller also uses value to illuminate the duchess. A little black boy is pulling back a curtain, letting light into the room so we can see his mistress. Unlike previous portraits where slaves are in plain sight, Kneller hides the child in the dark. We can barely make out his face. His place is invisible, and his role is singular: to elevate his mistress. Kneller also includes a dog, a common motif in these portraits to represent a slave’s loyalty and their animalistic nature.  

Nicolas de Largillierre, Portrait of a Woman and an Enslaved Servant, 1696

Oil on canvas, 55 x 42 in

Ascension Number: 03.37.2

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

While this woman’s identity is still debated, we know she had great wealth. Europeans’ status was tied up in their overseas investments, and Largillierre reflects this by including exotic markers–a pet parrot, luxurious fabrics, and an enslaved black boy. Only the rich would have access to such rare resources. Like Kneller’s painting, Largillierre’s dramatic use of value creates emphasis. Compared to the brightness of the woman, the slave boy is hidden in shadows as he gazes at his mistress. His dark, dusty skin stands in stark contrast to her alabaster complexion. Moreover, his metal collar and placement with the family dog alludes to the nature of his position. This is a visual argument for the “purity” and racial superiority of European culture. The grandeur of his mistress is overshadowing; this boy is meant to be ignored. In fact, at first glance, we hardly see him. 

Nicolas de Largillierre, Princess Rakoczi, 1720

Oil on canvas, 53.7 x 40.9 in

Ascension Number: NG 3883

The National Gallery, London

 

Consistent with the Rococo style in the early eighteenth century, Largillierre depicts the decadence, even foolishness, of the aristocracy. Between the shimmery, gold fabric and the smiles on the two figures' faces, it is easy to ignore what this portrait is representing. This opulence is meant to distract. Despite the smile the slave girl gives her mistress, any apparent happiness is complicated by the thick metal collar around her neck. Like in other portraits, there is a clear power structure. The size of the princess dwarfs her slave. There is hierarchy not only in their positions but in their implied worth as people. The girl, dressed up in the fashion of slaves, appears doll-like—more a toy than human being. Ideas of racial inferiority and superiority are still present in European consciousness and little thought is given to the dehumanizing nature of slavery at the benefit of the wealthy.