The Theology of the Eucharist in 16th century German Art

     Depictions of the “Last Supper” have often been a crucial candidate for any successful artist’s portfolio and have been a staple of the iconography of the church since the catacombs of the early Christians. Artists have chosen different scenes from the story recorded in the Christian Gospels for different reasons, but for German and Northern European artists in the 1500s, the ways in which the last meal of Christ and his disciples were depicted would become more political in concept. Many German artists admired Martin Luther’s activism for the Protestant church in the early 16th century which brought up theological questions of iconoclasm, and questions concerning the Eucharist including whether or not a sacrificial (paschal) lamb should be included, and whether or not the laity should take part in drinking the wine. A few artists, such as Albrecht Dürer and Lucas Cranach the Elder sought to further conversation about his ideas through portraits of him and depictions of his reforms, and they inspired many other Northern European artists to do the same. This exhibit will examine the similarities and differences between the depictions of the Last Supper story as told by Northern European artists over a 100 year period, both before and after Luther’s attempts to reform the church. More specifically we will compare the scenes chosen by the artists and the presence or absence of the paschal lamb- a part of the Catholic Eucharist that Luther was adamantly against.

Albrecht Dürer

“The Last Supper, from The Large Passion

1510

Woodcut

22.51.3

Dürer’s first “Last Supper” woodcut was finished before Luther began his ministry and features all 12 disciples and a server gathered around Christ with all elements of the Eucharist depicted, including the paschal lamb. Christ is seen with a halo, embracing John, and the disciples are crowded into a narrow room with a high, vaulted ceiling. Because all 12 disciples are depicted and because of the frustration and concern that they are demonstrating, we can assume that Dürer is depicting Christ’s announcement of his coming betrayal: a popular pre-Reformation scene for Last Supper works. 

Albrecht Dürer

“The Last Supper”

1523

Woodcut

22.111.1

Dürer’s later Last Supper woodcut has often been interpreted to represent the image of John 13:34 where Christ commands his disciples to love one another. Only 11 disciples are represented and Judas has presumably already left to betray Christ. The men are now seated in a wider room with three large windows and a surprisingly empty table. Dürer now chooses to exclude the paschal lamb from his piece in order to support the views of Luther. The only object remaining on the table is a single goblet of wine that can be interpreted as a commentary on Luther’s desire for the laity to be included in the taking of communion.

Sebald Beham

“The Last Supper” from the Passion Series

1521

Woodcut

1278.1136-3

Beham was a member of the “Little Masters” group and his style and subjects followed very closely to Dürer’s. His Last Supper piece demonstrates his Lutheran views in the same way the Dürer’s later piece does. He does not include the paschal lamb and there only 11 disciples depicted. The disciples are gathered around Christ seated at a small table in a hall with high vaulted ceilings. Jesus seems to be instructing his disciples, presumably enacting John 13:34.

Lucas Cranach the Elder

“The Last Supper” Panel from Wittenberg Altarpiece

1547

Oil Painting

in situ, Stadtkirche Wittenberg

Cranach the Elder famously worked very closely with Luther and many of his supporters, and in this piece, he even includes Luther as one of the figures sitting with the disciples, receiving the wine of communion. The disciples are seated at a round table in a courtyard with John on Christ’s lap and Judas on his right hand. Even though Cranach chose to show Judas as a part of the scene, he makes sure his viewers know who he is by giving him red hair and a yellow cloak. What is interesting about Cranach’s choices in this piece is that he shows the lamb on the table, which disagrees with Luther’s views, but at the same time, he shows support for Luther’s views by including him in the midst of the disciples as a representation of the common laity’s ability to receive communion.

Designed by Bernard van Orley 

Probably woven by Pieter de Pannemaker 

“The Last Supper”

ca. 1525–28

Wool, silk, silver-gilt thread.

1975.1.1915

Like many Last Suppers, this tapestry is a part of a series of the Passion of Christ. The piece depicts Christ’s announcement of his betrayal and shows Judas about to leave while the other disciples react to the news. The masterful weaving is incredibly ornament and the decorations and architecture shown are contemporary to the artist’s time, not to Christ’s. Van Orley demonstrates a Protestant position by placing the wine pitcher on top of the platter where the paschal lamb would have been held. Compositionally, the piece mimics Dürer’s 1510 woodcut, and conceptually, it follows Dürer’s 1523 piece. 

Tilman Riemenschneider

“The Altar of the Holy Blood”

1501-1505

Limewood carving

in situ, St. James’s Church, Rothenberg ob der Tauber

Riemenshneider’s depiction of the Last Supper is very different from the other pieces in this collection, because instead of placing Christ in the center of the piece and either shaming Judas, like Cranach or excluding him, like Dürer (1523), he chooses to place Judas in the middle and exclude Christ altogether from the piece. This altarpiece contains a relatively popular relic and invited many pilgrims, so Riemenschneider chose to use Judas as a symbol for God’s grace and our need for repentance. The disciples are tightly packed into this flat panel, and while the traditional elements of the Eucharist are missing, there is an intricacy and ornateness surrounding the figures that is distinctly Catholic. Although this piece was finished before the Reformation, it sends an interesting message about grace in contrast to the growing corruption in the Catholic church regarding the sale of indulgences that would soon lead Luther to post his 99 theses. 

Escapism: French Artists' Retreat into the Garden

France, in the mid to late nineteenth century, endured dramatic change and upheaval in the form of industrialization. The Napoleonic Era ended in 1815 and France was in a state of economic distress. It found itself significantly behind its neighboring countries in regards to industrialization, so the following years saw an increase in the number of factories and urbanization, particularly in cities like Paris. French artists responded to this atmosphere of social upheaval and growth by escaping to the countryside and taking on a new, radical approach to painting called “Impressionism.”

Gardens played a significant role in the late nineteenth century as they were often the destination for people escaping the fast-paced life of the city. It is the very nature of a garden to create a stylized nature that is unlike the world around it. French artists, such as Monet, Manet, Hassam, Cassatt, and Pissarro, used gardens as a setting to portray people escaping the chaotic and modern world around into an idealized, Utopian scene of life. Not only were they promoting escapism, they were also commenting on the effects of industrialization. Industrial development opened up more time for leisurely activities, such as painting, so they retreated into the countryside. These artists’ loose brushstrokes composing tranquil garden scenes signify the free, sanctuary-like nature of gardens that offer escape during rapid industrial growth in the late nineteenth century.

Claude Monet

Camille Monet on a Garden Bench

1873

Oil on canvas

2002.62.1

Camille Monet on a Bench is a portrayal of Claude Monet’s wife in a private garden at their home in Argenteuil, France that they moved to in the late 1880s to escape from city life. The sunlight peers into the background, which creates a sparkling glow among the flowers. The dark, somber attitude in the foreground contrasts significantly with the background, causing the garden to look even more vibrant and otherworldly. Camille’s surrounding area serves as a resting place and escape as she telegraphs an expression of sadness and slouches on the bench.

Mary Cassatt

Lydia Crocheting in the Garden at Marly

1880

Oil on canvas

65.184

In Lydia Crocheting in the Garden at Marly,  Cassatt depicts a woman knitting in the garden outside her house in a village outside of Paris. Cassatt emphasizes the domestic environment in this painting, portraying a craft that was increasingly valued due to the boom in manufactured goods from factories. She is making a statement about social climate of industrialization by highlighting the beauty and value of authentically made goods in nature. In addition, Cassatt effectively captures the dazzling sunlight off the flowers and the woman’s hat, enhancing the idyllic portrayal of this scene.

Édouard Manet

The Monet Family in Their Garden at Argenteuil

1874

Oil on canvas

1976.201.14

This painting features Claude Monet and his family enjoying the outdoors, painted by fellow painter and friend, Édouard Manet. This scene takes on an almost Garden of Eden type of serenity. Camille and Jean, Monet’s wife and son, lay in the grass while Claude picks apples, insinuating a oneness with nature. The chickens in the corner offer a quaint connection to animals and farm life. The loose, smudged brushstrokes give it a hazy, dream-like quality to further illustrate how the Monet’s appear to have escaped into this alcove of nature for a peaceful afternoon.

Frederick Childe Hassam

 French Tea Garden (Also Known as the Terra-Cuite Tea Set)

1910 

Oil on canvas

Hunter Museum of American Art

Hassam’s French Tea Garden depicts a garden in Paris that provides a peaceful respite from the noise of the city with a woman prepared for a visitor. The gestural brushstrokes cause the leaves to look like they are blowing in a breeze, which exudes a calming effect. The woman appears to have a pleasant tea party planned for an unseen companion, allowing the viewer to step in as the fellow diner. The knitting emphasizes the value of hand-crafted goods and the availability of time for leisurely activities made possible by the industrial revolution.

Camille Pissarro

The Garden of the Tuileries on a Spring Morning

1899

Oil on canvas

1992.103.3

This scene is a portrayal of Pissarro’s view of the Garden of Tuileries from his apartment window in the late nineteenth century. It is clear this garden is vast and open to the public, but still indicates a sense of separation and otherness. A horizon of buildings and factories can be seen in the background, but the garden is surrounded by a barrier of blooming trees. The city encroaches on the borders, but the garden flourishes, showing a myriad of people escaping the hustle and bustle of Paris to wander around its peaceful landscape.

Blue Portraits & Sorrow

Blue Portraits & Sorrow

There have many different phases and even trends in the colors used in painting. People are easily inspired by each other and easily challenged by each other as well, causing new colors to be invented or new ways of using color to be created in hopes of recognition for something new. Color can cause a painting to look light and meaningless or dark and somber. Some colors can put enough strain the eyes that they actually disturb the viewer. One could spend a lifetime deeply analyzing the changes and shifts of color usage throughout history, however, I have a different question for you today. In all these changing trends and styles of color, is there any way in which artists through history are consistent with each other? I would argue that something that remains globally consistent in the world of art is the use of the color blue to convey sorrow or sadness. Picasso obviously had his famous “blue period”, but that isn’t what we’re going to talk about.
Psychologists of today suggest that blue is a color of many emotions. It can cause us to feel safe, bold, calm, stable, but most of all, sad. The very color itself causes most viewers brains to start to conjure up thoughts and emotions of sorrow and soberness. Therefore, many painters, both conscious of this knowledge and not, have incorporated blue into their portraits, where in turn the blue takes off on its own, almost subversively overpowering the subject matter into appearing sad, wistful, or mournful.

Title: Portrait of Florence PierceCreator: George BellowsDate Created: 1914Physical Dimensions: w76.2 x h96.52 cm (unframed)Type: Painting
Medium: Oil on wood panel Google Arts & Culture

 Florence Pierce was the daughter of a lighthouse keeper who lived on an island off the coast of Maine, where Bellows spent several summers. In this portrait of her, Bellows experiments with bold color arranged in large blocks. At the same time, he suggests a complex psychological presence conveyed by the brightly lit gaze of his subject. This portrait is already very dramatic, with its somber, pale figure, dramatic lighting and bold colors. However, it would not carry the same weight and sobriety if the rich blue of her dress were not present. It is this color that ties the subject down to her sorrow.

Title: Self-portrait or Le manteau rougeCreator: Tarsila Do AmaralDate: 1923Physical Dimensions: w73 x d60 (cm)Type: oil on canvas
Google Arts & Culture

 In this self portrait, there are the a lot of geometric structures, suggesting a Cubist interpretation. The treatment given to strong colors is uniform and flat. The use of cutouts in the figure balances the composition. The deep blue behind the figure and also highlighted in her eyes, gives an extremely strong feeling of mournfulness. The mental atmosphere that it appears the figure is in is one of great sorrow.

Portrait of a woman from southern Germany .
Hans Holbein the Younger

• Date: c.1523; Germany Places are defined in terms of modern geography.

• Style: Northern Renaissance
• Genre: portrait
• Media: oil, panel
• Tag: female-portraits
• Dimensions: 45 x 34 cm WikiArt

 Over a finely pleated collared blouse, this unknown woman is wearing a fur-lined jacket whichshe has fastened with a red cord. On her head, she has a rather old-fashioned cap and veil. Her pale face stands out well against the blue background. This painting is attributed to the German painter Hans Holbein, who painted similar portraits. Here again, the blue atmosphere that envelopes this figure opens up an entirely color-reliant aspect to this portrait. One of solidarity and sobriety and deep sadness.

Title: Portrait of a PilotCreator: Alexander N. Samokhvalov (1894-1971)Date Created: 1933Physical Dimensions: 89 х 64,3 cmSubject Keywords: Pilot, War, Samokhvalov, Uniform, Man, Portrait, Realism, Petrov-VodkinType: PaintingRights: The Institute of Russian Realist ArtMedium: Oil on canvas
Google Arts & Culture

 In this painting, a sense of power is the main characteristic of the subject. An aviator who guards the airspace of the motherland is focusing his gaze in the distance. He is ready to confront any enemy with determination.The precise contours, the sharp contrast of light and shade, the composition and the specifics of the figure of the aviator evoke the idea of nerves of steel and an unbreakable character. However, the background and highlights of blue imply the presence of another emotion in this scene. One of sadness. Although the figure appears brave, he also carries a weight of sobriety with him. Maybe its the wartime buddies he lost, maybe its the inhuman acts he has been forced to carry out.

Title: Self-PortraitDate Created: 1889Physical Dimensions: w438.2 x h571.5 cm (overall)Type: PaintingRights: Collection of Mr. and Mrs. John Hay WhitneyExternal Link: National Gallery of Art, Washington, DCMedium: oil on canvaspainter: Vincent van GoghTheme: portrait, selfSchool: Dutch
Google Arts & Culture

This self–portrait is a particularly bold painting, apparently executed in a single sitting without later retouching. Here Van Gogh portrayed himself at work, dressed in his artist's smock with his palette and brushes in hand. The haunting nature of the painting is distinct from his other self portraits. The dark blue–violet of the smock and ground, the vivid orange of his hair and beard, create a startling contrast to the yellow and green of his face and heighten the gauntness of his features in a sallow complexion. All tied together with this dismal blue. All in all, a very sad portrait, considering what was happening in his life at this point and what inward emotions and thoughts went into this work.

Disquiet Experiences in Quiet Places: Vincent Van Gogh

Disquiet Experiences in Quiet Places: Vincent Van Gogh

Over the course of Vincent Van Gogh’s bizarre life, he experienced a wild myriad of emotions and battled several mental disorders. These hardships, along with his struggle to become an artist, caused him to create very emotionally charged pieces. This can be especially observed through his depictions of spaces from memory. These paintings focus on an magnificent sense of movement in the inanimate objects. This is done by use of thick texture and intense color, as Van Gogh doesn’t abide by the laws of perspective or light. This causes these works to feel strange and uneasy, as though the ground beneath the viewer is tilting, or the walls are closing in. The people depicted in these spaces are few, but their placement and expressions add to the overwhelming emotional vibration of the space. Standing before these pieces, the viewer is sure to become sucked into Van Gogh’s emotion, wether they find it pleasant or uncomfortable. These feelings range from the grave sadness he felt at his worst, to the moments of bliss he scarcely experienced. Walking away from these pieces, a viewer is left with their memory of the emotion they felt when looking at it, that overshadows their memory of the formal elements. Van Gogh’s feelings about these places are made clear to the onlooker, causing them to feel as though they too are within the environment, and vulnerable to it’s sentiment.

Artist: Vincent Van Gogh

Title: The Night Café

Date: 1888

Medium: Oil on Canvas

Yale Art Gallery

This eerie café in Arles, below Van Gogh’s rented room, was a heavy place for Van Gogh during his years there. He uses loud, contrasting reds and greens, and a man who stares straight out of the frame, to cause unrest in the viewer. The furniture is stretched and squished without conformity to perspective, causing it to seem just as nightmare-like as the colors. These aspects, coupled with the hanging lights, which have been given a humming glow, haunt the space and transfer Van Gogh’s anxiety for this area, to the observer. At the time he began painting The Night Café, he wrote in a letter to his brother, “It always seems to me that I’m a traveller who’s going somewhere and to a destination. If I say to myself, the somewhere, the destination don’t exist at all, that seems well argued and truthful to me.” (Van Gogh, letter 656).

Artist: Vincent Van Gogh
Title: Starry Night 
Date: June, 1889
Medium: Oil on Canvas
Museum of Modern Art

The aesthetic beauty of Van Gogh’s Starry Night is a testament Van Gogh’s pleasant nostalgia for this place. It is a scene from the window of his room at the mental asylum where he stayed while attempting to heal his illness. Painted from memory, his admiration for the starry sky and rolling landscape is clear through the magical swirls of blue and yellow that float effortlessly over the story-book valley below. His use of deep blues and greens communicate rest and calm, while the accents of luminous yellow add a fantasy-like aspect. The vast ocean of this famous sky causes the viewer to become wrapped up in the enormity of it, and less concerned with their own presence. Van Gogh’s emphasis on the beautiful liveliness of the starry sky shows a gratitude for this place and the escape that looking out the window gave him, from the troubles of himself.

Artist: Vincent Van Gogh

Title: Enclosed Field with Ploughman,

Date: October 1889

Medium: Oil on Canvas

Museum of Fine Arts

After painting the Starry Night earlier that year, Van Gogh produced many paintings of his memories looking out at the world beyond his room. This painting was a result of Van Gogh’s memories of the rolling hills and blue skies. The direction of the sweeping lines seem to catch the viewer in their current and pull them out to a sea of sun-lit wheat fields. The warm blues and yellows are playful and bring the painting to life. These delightful elements bring the hot sun and open spaces right to the onlookers feet, and Van Gogh’s feelings of admiration for this view are contracted from it. During this season of life, Van Gogh felt he was truly recovering from his illnesses and finding himself to not be “mad” after all. Perhaps this moment in time depicts a happy atmosphere in which Van Gogh wished to find hope in. There is truly a feeling of fleeting bliss within this space, causing the viewer to want to stay a while, and bask in the sunlight.

Artist: Vincent Van Gogh

Title: Ward in The Hospital at Arles

Date: 1889

Medium: Oil on Canvas

Oskar Reinhart Foundation 

Van Gogh suffered a fit on December 23rd, 1888, in which part of his ear was cut off. He was hospitalized in Arles, where this painting was inspired. The muddy greens and rusty oranges he chose feel bleak, and the figures are hunched in dismay, emphasizing the emotional atmosphere of this hospital full of sick people. The ground comes up the bottom of the painting, allowing the viewer to feel as though they are standing directly in the middle of sickness. After suffering the breakdown that led to his injury, Van Gogh had to recover before returning to work. His frustration with his helplessness in combination with the uncertainty of what was causing such harmful fits, weighed on him during his hospital stay. This space makes the viewer feel the almost gross, painful time in his life, as they are backed into a Van Gogh’s corner of confusion and restlessness. 

Artist: Vincent Van Gogh

Title: Prisoners Exercising (Prisoners Round)

Date: 1890

Medium: Oil on Canvas

Pushkin Museum

Painted in the year of his death, Van Gogh’s Prisoner’s Exercising is one of his creepiest works. Like The Night Café, this work uses a luminous green and a figure staring straight at the viewer, to create discomfort. A group of prisoners marching in a circle makes the viewer feel unwelcome, and therefore causes unrest. Though the actual space itself comes from a print by More, Van Gogh used his own color scheme and added the foremost prisoner’s stare. 1890 was Van Gogh’s darkest year, in which he felt trapped in the asylum like a prisoner. The high walls and looming shadows give the sense that the viewer cannot leave, but the daunting stare of the prisoner, and the haunting green color makes the viewer want to run. This droning scene echoes Van Gogh’s overwhelming inner despair over his last months in the insane asylum, when he was too ill to even write to his brother.

Artist: Vincent Van Gogh

Title: Corridor in The Asylum

Date: 1889

Medium: Oil color and essence over black chalk on pink laid ("Ingres") paper

48.190.2

During his time at Saint Rémy Asylum, Van Gogh resumed his work. This drawing depicts a hallway in the asylum with warm yellows and reds that are not local to the real hallway. As grey as it is in real life, the colors of the painting are wild and whimsical, winding down the hallway in a dash-like texture. He used these highly charged elements to explain how it felt to stand there in the hallway and feel his mind wrestle with itself. Van Gogh projects this unrest onto the hallway so that the viewer can stand before it and feel a wide range of emotion. Pleasant at first, then it becoming strange, alluding to the idea that his experience with the asylum was plagued by uncertainty.“I’m perhaps exaggerating in the sadness I feel at being knocked down by illness again – but I feel a kind of fear.” (Van Gogh, letter 798).

Pity and Conviction: Barque Martyr Painting’s Relation to Jacques-Louis David

Within Europe, the depiction of religious martyrs became a common theme in Baroque painting due to its ability to draw emotion out of the audience. Because of western Europe’s background in Christianity, stories of Christians giving up their lives for their faith resonated and deeply moved many emotionally and spiritually. Within the Catholic world, martyrs were given the highest honor for their ultimate sacrifice. With the popularity of their stories, many artists were commissioned either by the church or by private collectors to depict the final moments or death of martyrs. In these paintings, the artist attempts to capture the same emotion as the stories of the martyrs, but to a greater level through the visual depiction. Through the painting, the viewer would be elevated to greater levels of sympathy and pity and could be inspired further to hold fast to their faith.
 With the popularity of images depicting martyrs, Jacques-Louis David, the founder of the French Neoclassical movement, most likely encountered several types of these images during his time studying art. David was not interested in religion or faith, but was rather active in the political and philosophical discussions during French Enlightenment period. David recognized that, similarly to paintings of religious Martyrs, depictions of political Martyrs, or people who were sacrificed life in support of their ideological beliefs, could draw strong fervor out of people and provoke action. David on several occasions painted scenes of current political martyrs of the French Revolution, like The Death of Marat, as well as past martyrs who held significance within Enlightenment thought, including The Death of Socrates. Within his painting of political martyrs, one can see how David used themes found in Baroque depictions of Christian martyrs.

Stefano Maderno, The Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia, c. 1600, marble, length 130 cm, Santa Cecilia in Traverse, Rome

Created in 1600, The Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia by Stefano Maderno is a picturesque example of Baroque sculpture. Saint Cecilia is one of the most famous martyrs and is known as the saint of musicians. According to legend, she was murdered by three blows to the neck by sword because of here faith. The sculptures curved and limp body feels very realistic and makes it seem as if Saint Cecilia had only recently been killed. Her turned head gives a sense of her recent death but also exposes the cut to her neck that ultimately kills her. The depiction of the deep cut especially horrifies the viewer for its upfront display of the suffering the martyr went through for her faith. The apparent nearness and horrifying nature of Cecilia’s death deeply moves the viewer emotionally and spiritually.  

Caravaggio, The Crucifixion of Saint Peter, c. 1601, oil on canvas, 230 x 170 cm, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, Italy

Tradition within the Catholic Church says that the Apostle Peter was hung on a cross upside down because Peter asked not to die in the same manner as Christ. This painting, by Caravaggio, uses Baroque techniques to depict the death of Peter. The contrast of light vs. dark (or chiaroscuro) not only gives depth to the painting, but also provide emphasis to the character of Paul and adds a sense of drama to the scene. Peter is pictured in a idealized and muscular body giving him a sense of strength even in the painful moment. Caravaggio also gives incredibly detail to the pierced hands and feet of Peter. Peters scrunched up face gives a window to the viewer the pain Peter currently suffers. All of these details draw the viewer into the seen and to feel the anguish of Peter during his final moments.

Gerrit van Honthorst, Saint Sebastian,  c. 1632, oil on canvas, 101 x 117 cm, The National Gallery, London

Honthorst, considered to be a follower of Caravaggio, also uses the Baroque style to depict an emotional and terrifying scene. Saint Sebastian was a Roman Centurion sentenced to death by the Emperor for converting to Christianity. He was tied to a tree and shot with arrows and then stoned to death. Saint Sebastian’s limp body looks incredibly realistic and conveys his recent passing. The lack of a large amount of blood gives the sense that he was shot only a few moments ago . All of these facts plus the incredibly attention to detail draw the viewer in and make it seem as if we are in the scene witnessing the last breaths of Saint Sebastian.

Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Socrates, c. 1787, oil on canvas, 129.5 x 196.2 cm, 31.45

During the Enlightenment, Socrates was a greatly revered philosopher for voluntarily taking hemlock in an act of resistance and conviction in his beliefs. David, in The Death of Socrates, dramatizes and idealizes Socrates final act in attempt convict others to follow Socrates in a similar manner. In the painting, while others surrounding are limp in emotion, Socrates's muscular and radiating body sits straight up with a hand pointing to the sky. These details are suppose to glorify and magnify Socrates character in his final act. David hoped that, similarly to previous martyr paintings, The Death of Socrates would move the viewer to sympathize with Socrates and his convictions and provoke the audience to actions of sacrifice for their beliefs as the French Revolution approached.

Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Marat, c. 1793, 165 x 128 cm, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels, Belgium

The Death of Marat is one of the most recognizable images from the French Revolution. Marat, a journalist and key leader of the French Revolution, was murdered by someone who opposed his political beliefs. David paints Marat stylistically in a very similar way to Baroque paintings. The scene is set soon after Marat’s death as he still has pen and paper in hand. He slouches in a very similar manner to to other martyr paintings. The background is dark forcing the viewer to focus on Marat. Blood can bee seen slowing building up in the tub. All of these details bring the viewers directly into the scene and make it feel as if Marat has died right in front of them. Like Baroque paintings, drawing the viewer into the painting produces great feelings of sorrow and conviction.

Jacques Louis David, The Death of Bara, c. 1794, 119 x 156 cm, Private Collection

The Death of Bara is one of the three paintings David completed for a series on French Revolution martyrs, one other including The Death of Marat. Bara was a young drummer boy of the First French Republic and became a prominent symbol of the revolution when he was killed in battle. In the painting Bara lies in a very similar fashion to Maderno Saint Cecilia. His naked body harkens back to the Renaissance painting but also illustrates his youth. Like the past paintings, this image creates compassion and pity for a boy who sacrificed his life for a greater political cause.

Commedia dell'Arte

Commedia dell’Arte, also known as “comedy of professional artists”, is an Italian theatrical form that flourished in Europe from the 16th century to the 18th century. This form of theater emphasized ensemble acting. The plots were often borrowed from the classical literary tradition of commedia erudita, or learned comedy, and the improvisations were set in a framework of masks and stock situations.

The characters were divided into four main categories: the Zanni (servants), the Vecchi (old men), the Innamorati (lovers), and the Capitano (captains). The Zanni were the most important and disruptive characters as they decided the fate of the other characters. The Vecchi were simply the elders in the scene. The Innamorati were the young lovers of the play whose love was often hindered by the Vecchi but supported by the Zanni, and the Capitano were the war heroes of the play. There were several other characters involved; however, these were just the main categories.  

Even though every role was improvised, each character could be depicted based off of their distinct attire, gestures, speech, and props. Most characters wore masks to define who they were, and all characters had unique costumes and even postures. This allowed artists to correctly portray specific characters in paintings and figurines.

A Dance in the Country, 1755

Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo

oil on canvas

29¾x47¼in.

1980.67  

Tiepolo, an artist who found interests in the Commedia dell’Arte, often uses characters from this style of theater as his painting’s subjects. In A Dance in the Country, Tiepolo depicts Commedia dell’Arte’s Mezzetino and Pulcinella characters. This is known because of the common costumes, masks, and gestures these two characters are known for. Mezzetino is known for wearing red, for wearing some kind of cape and hat, and for talking to the ladies, and Tiepolo successfully includes these common attributes of Mezzetino on his center figure in his painting. Pulcinella is known for his grotesque nose and tall hat, attributes Tiepolo captures and includes to distinguish this figure from the crowd.

Mezzetin, 1718-20

Antoine Watteau

oil on canvas

21¾x17 in.

34.138

As Tiepolo, Watteau depicts the Commedia dell’Arte character of Mezzetino. To ensure the viewer is aware of which character is present, Watteau paints his figure in a striped tunic with white breeches. He also includes a red hat and cape, common features of Mezzetino. Although this character looks different than Tiepolo’s depiction of the same character, they are both in fact valid representations of the character because Mezzetino’s attire had altered slightly over the years. Watteau also paints Mezzetino with a dramatic head and hands to represent his expressive character.  

Harlequin, 1760

Franz Anton Bustelli

hard-paste porcelain

7⅞in.

1974.356.525

Bustelli won popularity with his Commedia dell’Arte figurines because he was able to successfully portray characters based off their costumes. The male figure represents Harlequin, a principal character of the Commedia dell’Arte. Harlequin is known for his vibrant, brightly colored, patched suits. The female figure represents Harlequina. Harlequina’s attire is notable because it is complementary to Harlequin’s suit. Both figurines are positioned in a way that suggest movements in a dance specific to the play. They are also positioned in such a way that conveys an aspect of their personality and character.

Commedia dell’Arte, 1958

Gino Severini

Lithograph

27.5x21 in.

68.176

Color contrast and abstraction are used by Severini to depict two characters from Commedia dell’Arte. It’s obvious these two figures are from the Commedia dell’Arte because of their graphic costumes. Specifically notable is the diamond-shaped patterned suit, which allows the viewer to go a step further and distinguish the figure on the right to be Harlequin. The use of cubism aids in portraying each figure’s personality. The masks Severini gave to the figures support the mysterious and bizarre character traits of each character.

Harlequin with Goat as Bagpipes, 1736

Meissen Manufactory

hard-paste porcelain

5 9/16x3x2½in.

1982.60.316

The colorful costume and mischievously smiling mask Meissen created conform to the aesthetics of the Commedia dell’Arte character of Harlequin. The exaggerated naturalism of the goat as bagpipes amplifies Harlequin’s grotesque character. Harlequin’s character would be one to take a live goat and use it for bagpipes, and this figurine effectively shows Harlequin’s distorted and wild character and actions as he would be seen in the play. 

Commedia dell’Arte, 1936

Zygmunt Waliszewski

oil on cardboard

18.1x24in.

The National Museum of Krakow

Even though Waliszewski portrays a migrant acting troupe using childlike impressions, he is still able to effectively show specific Commedia dell’Arte characters. In the middle of the painting are Harlequin and Columbina. The checkered-like suit give the principal Harlequin character away, and the dress and eye makeup give Harlequin’s mistress, Columbina, away. It’s evident that the two figures on the right are also characters from the Commedia dell’Arte because of how exaggerated their look is with their big noses and hats.