The Baroque Era: Elements of Power

Paintings are powerful. This is a well known fact that has been around for centuries and taken to heart by artists across the globe. Whether they were created to make a statement or give the viewer a feeling in order to evoke a specific emotion, there is almost always some underlying motive in the head of the artist as they begin to paint. 

Styles of painting have also come and go and continue to fluctuate to this day, but in this particular exhibition we will set our sights toward the beginning of the 17th century and focus on the famous Baroque style of art that began to make a name for itself in Italy during this time. Although Baroque is a loose term used to cover a large expanse of artistic endeavors from music to poetry, there were prominent themes in European painting in particular that are worth noting and will be explored in depth throughout this exhibition. Baroque art often consisted of gorgeous oil paintings that held dramatic, sensory-filled scenes with intense contrast and colors. As a result these elements became widely spread far beyond the borders of Italy where they originated, and they became immensely popular with artists everywhere. These paintings also often held a source of tension between figures that is accentuated through the artist’s particular use of colors and light. Artists used techniques such as Chiaroscuro— ways of painting that involved dramatic light and shading to create volume — within these striking scenes. This would highlight the main subject and guide the viewer’s eyes towards the right places. 

This particular exhibition is an exploration of some of the beautiful pieces that came out of the Baroque period that features dramatic scenes of both religion and mythology. Several of the artists mentioned throughout this exhibition were very important players in the Baroque movement itself and it’s expansion out of Italy and across the whole of Europe over the century. In the selected paintings, we will explore the use of color and contrast, dramatic lighting, chiaroscuro, and the clear depiction of an emotional narrative. Though every piece is unique and created in different time periods, the way the previous Baroque elements are exemplified connect them all to one another.

Peter Paul Rubens, Venus and Adonis,

 mid 1630s, oil on canvas, 77 3/4 x 95 5/8 in., 37.162

Although Peter Paul Rubens focused on religious paintings for much of his career and had a lot of success in making work for churches, he also explored scenes from iconic mythological narratives such as this one. Taken from the famous poem by Ovid, this painting depicts two lovers in a tense farewell as one of them turns to leave. The way that Rubens chose to paint the strained limbs and the heavy contrast that appears to be taking over the scene from the right gives the narrative the drama and tension. Baroque art thrived with this particular drama, and was famous for the emotional intensity that this brought out of painting. The rich earthy red color of Adonis’ tunic also pairs well with the other warm tones in the scene, and the loveliness of them adds a Baroqueian sense sensuality to the piece as a whole.

Guercino (Giovanni Francesco Barbien), Samson Capture by the Philistines,

1619, oil on canvas, 75 1/4 x 93 1/4 inch, 1984.459.

In contrast to the mythological narrative seen in Ruben’s piece, this painting portrays a well known biblical narrative and gives viewers a look into the life of Samson. In this scene Guercino was successful in dramatically rendering the limbs of every figure surrounding Samson as they grab at his strained back, giving the painting a heavy sense of drama and confusion that only adds to the story as a whole. The way the light hits the skin on each figure within this painting also gives a very theatrical feeling to the piece, which was another popular Baroque element that was used widely during this time to express dramatic narratives. Deep reds and blues displayed on the tunics of some of the figures also stay true to the Baroque style, as we saw a similar red tunic in Ruben’s previously mentioned painting.

Eustache Le Sueur, The Rape of Tamar,

probably 1640, oil on canvas, 74 1/2 x 16 1/2 in., 1999.121

Eustache Le Sueur was a French artist taught under Simon Vouet and largely focused on religious themes through most of his career. His teacher Vouet was an Italian Baroque artist who played a large part in the Baroque movement itself when it was first beginning in Italy. Sueur painted The Rape of Tamar during a time in his life where he was most influences by Vouet, so the painting reflects many prominent elements of Baroque art. Sueur’s use of the three primary colors in the different cloths within the scene is one element that really stands out in this particular piece, mainly because of the way he creates intense light to shine on them making them almost jump out from the canvas. Colorful tunics and materials in general were also just a popular element used by Baroque artist’s at the time and so this helps put this painting right in line with many similar to it. The figures in this painting are also frozen in motion, adding a Baroque twist to classical figures who almost look as if they where inspired by Greek sculpture themselves.

Caravaggio (Mischelangelo Merisi), The Denial of Saint Peter,

1610, oil on canvas, 37 x 49 3/8 in., 1997.167

Caravaggio was on of the most notable painters of the Baroque style and had a heavy influence on painters like Ruben, Rembrandt, and many more. In this particular painting of his Caravaggio’s love for dramatic lighting and Chiaroscuro really comes through because of his use of heavy contrast and the way he renders the expressions and clothing on the figures. The overall tone of this piece is extremely similar to the other pieces that have been mentioned so far in this collection, in particular with Caravaggio’s use of both color and contrast. The colors are all incredibly deep and rich, and they have an intense contrast when compared to the pitch black the Caravaggio chose to use in this painting. Caravaggio also adds a heavy air of drama to the piece with the way he renders the older man’s expression, for the wrinkles and the way the contrast heightens them adds tension to the scene as a whole.

Johann Liss, Nymph and Shepherd,

1625, oil on canvas, 41 1/8 x 37 3/8 in., 1999.121

Johann Liss was a German painter who was influenced greatly by the work of Caravaggio and it shows through his paintings. In this whimsical scene a wandering shepherd has discovered a sleeping nymph, who is a lovely reclining nude and is the perfect picture of peace. Liss’ use of heavy lighting in this piece shows in the way he focuses most of it on the nymph herself, and the paleness of her body with the added light has an intense contrast with the darkness that surrounds her. This scene is also one of suspended action and tension because of the way the shepherd is holding a rod about the creature’s head as if he is about to hit her. This painting also holds a similar color pallet to the ones that we have seen before, in particular its use of the deep red that surrounds the female nude. This red color is also seen in Sueur’s The Rape of Tamar and acts in a similar way as it helps add intensity to a suspended moment of drama.

Abraham Janssen van Nuyssen, The Dead Christ in the Tomb with Two Angels,

c. 1610, oil on canvas, 45 3/8 x 58 in., 1971.101

Like Rubens, Abraham Janssen van Nuyssen was a flemish painter, and like many before him he was heavily influenced by the Baroque work of Caravaggio. This particular scene of his is a religious one, depicting Christ right after his death on the cross. Once again we see intense dramatic lighting that shines on all three figures in this scene, and the reclining figure of Christ in particular holds so much light on his skin that it looks as if he could be glowing. Chiaroscuro is also used heavily in this piece as the figure of Christ has almost every muscle in his body shaded in a way to create dramatic volume. The Angel’s in the scene are also portrayed frozen in motion, with hands and expressions hinting at their despair over the death of their Christ. Along with the intensity of the light, these things also help add to the drama and theatrical feeling of the painting.

Salvator Rosa, The Dream of Aeneas, 1660-65,

 oil on canvas, 77 1/2 x 47 1/2 in., 65.118

This painting is a scene taken from Virgil’s Aeneid and depicts the main hero Aeneas asleep on the Tiber river. The artist Salvator Rosa took the baseline inspiration from this story and used his skills with shading and rendering figures to bring this mythological story to life. The old man in this painting is supposed to be the river Tiber himself, as he whispered words to Aeneas about the beginning of Rome. As a whole this scene is extremely dark, but this only heightens Rosa’s strategic use of light to highlight the figures he wants the viewer to take notice of. The light hits most heavily on the sleeping figure of Aeneas at the bottom of the scene, and the stormy sky that Rosa chose to add above him adds to the drama of the scene and helps place the painting more firmly in the Baroque style from which it comes.

Jacques-Louis David in The French Revolution

        In the 18^th century the people of France faced starvation due to the massive amount of debt the country faced as a result of expenses from the American Revolutionary War and the lavish expenditure of the French court. The common people clamored for change and, as a response, King Louis XVI called together a session of the Estate General, which was the French parliament. The common people of France, named the Third Estate, outnumbered the First Estate (the clergy) and the Second Estate (the nobles) by several million, but they could not convince the First and Second Estate to reach a solution to the nation’s problems that didn’t make things harder for the commons people. Furious at this stalemate, the Third Estate withdrew from the Estate General and formed the National Assembly in order to establish a new constitution for the nation that benefitted all the people of France, not just the aristocracy. This new constitution would establish the true country of France that wasn’t ruled by the aristocracy.

        The existence of the National Assembly caused strife in France between the common people and the aristocracy and this conflict led to their cause being named The French Revolution. In order to garner support for themselves, or, as they called themselves, the patriots, the National Assembly employed several artists to create propaganda pieces for the public. The most famous of these propaganda artists was Jacques-Louis David, who was known to use the neoclassical form of using classical images and allegories to convey feelings of bravery, patriotism, and self-sacrifice. As a radical advocate for the National Assembly, David created several works that became widespread propaganda pieces during this time period.

Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Socrates, 1787, oil on canvas, 31.45

This piece was one of David’s earlier works and was a commissioned piece in which David encouraged and suggested the subject matter. In it, David shows the moment before the philosopher Socrates drinks poisonous hemlock in an ordered suicide by the city officials who believed that he was corrupting the minds of Greek youths. By choosing a well-known classical act of bravery, David likens the philosophic heroism of Socrates to the patriotic heroism valued during the Revolution. 

Jacques-Louis David, The Tennis Court Oath, 20^th June 1789, 1791, pen on paper, Château de Versailles

This drawing study is a fictional recreation of a historically patriotic scene where the Third Estate swears the oath that they will not disperse until a new constitution for the nation was established. This artwork was sponsored by the radical political party called the Jacobin Club, in which David himself belonged to. It was to eventually be engraved and mass reproduced as widespread propaganda. However, due to the fast pace course of the Revolution, David never finished the painting that this study was done for.

Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Marat, 1793, oil on canvas, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium and Antwerp

During the Revolution, artists were fascinated with the subject of death and how it applied to both enemies and good patriots. One way to invoke the public’s rage over death is to paint graphic representations of the cruel ends to martyrs. This painting shows the murder of a French revolutionary leader, Jean-Paul Marat, who died at the hands of Charlotte Corday, a noble woman against the radical actions of the Revolution. David’s painting was a clear statement at that time to “fight or die, kill or be killed”. 

Jacques-Louis David, Lictors Bearing to Brutus the Bodies of his Sons, 1789, oil on canvas, Louvre

This is a Neoclassical painting of David where he shows Lucius Junius Brutus, founder of the Roman Republic, contemplating the fate of his sons. They had sought to overthrow the republic and restore the monarchy and Brutus was, therefore, compelled to condemned them to death. In doing this, he became the heroic defender of the republic and also lost his own family. This painting was a bold allegory of civic virtue with vast resonance for the growing cause of republicanism in the French Revolution. The themes of virtue, sacrifice, and devotion to one’s nation sparked patriotism in supporters of the Revolution. 

Jacques-Louis David, The Oath of Horatii, 1784, oil on canvas, Louvre

This painting by David is considered, by scholars, to be the epitome of Neoclassical art and increased David’s fame even more during Revolution times. The scene depicted stresses the importance of patriotism and masculine self-sacrifice for one’s country by showing three Roman brothers, the Horatii, saluting their father before they go to fight the Curiatii in hopes of ending a war. The women grieving is because they are all connected in some way to both the Horatii and the Curiatii and know that they will have personal loss, but this must be done for the good of the nation. 

Jacques-Louis David, The Pain of Andromache, 1783, oil on canvas, École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts

This is a classical image from Homer’s Illiad, in which Andromache mourns for her husband, Hector, the hero of Troy, who was killed by the Greek hero, Achilles. David paints Hector with a noble air to emphasize the nobility of a hero’s death and matches it with the nobility found in Andromache as she has not collapsed in grief from her husband’s death. David does this in order to highlight the values of self-sacrifice and the subordination of the family that were encouraged during the Revolution.

References

Lee, Simon. David. Art & Ideas. London: Phaidon, 1999

The Lessons Taught through Curious Portrayals of Artists Themselves

     Jan Steen’s painting, The Dissolute Household, portrays a highly detailed, naturalistic, comic scene of a household. After both a quick glance and spending some time examining the many details of the scene, it is quite obvious that the household is a mess and has fallen into utter chaos. Scholars agree that Steen painted himself, not obscurely, into many of his paintings. Why would Steen choose to insert himself into his artwork in an unflattering light? There are numerous examples of artists painting themselves, either in self portraits or more obscurely into their art, in such a way to elevate their own status (e.g. Albrecht Durer’s Self-Portrait, Clara Peeter’s Still Life With Golden Goblets, and Diego Velázquez’s Las Meninas). This trend makes sense as it can be a form of self promotion and “proves” the talent of the artist. Yet, other artists have, like Steen, painted themselves into their art in such a way that does not obviously elevate their status as an artist but rather shows a side of themselves that is not overtly beneficial for their public image. This gallery explores several of these works in which the artist includes themself in their work in such a way that deviates from the trend of cultivating their public image, serving a different purpose that the viewer must interpret in light of the context of the times and the artist’s life.

Jan Steen, The Dissolute Household, ca. 1663-64, Oil on canvas, 1982.60.31 

In this piece, Steen paints himself directly into the middle of the disarray of the household portrayed. He is the male figure in the center of the painting, grinning and looking directly at the viewer while linking fingers with the maid behind the back of the lady of the house. His gaze confronts the viewer about the mess around him and causes one to wonder why Steen would purposefully make a connection between this chaotic scene and himself.

Caravaggio, David with the Head of Goliath, c. 1610, Oil on canvas, Galleria Borghese, Rome

The title of this painting alerts the viewer to the Biblical narrative that sets the scene for the subject matter of this piece by Caravaggio. David is the young, faithful man who takes down the giant, Goliath, who mocked and reviled the God of Israel. After killing him with a stone to the forehead, David cuts off Goliath’s head with Goliath’s own sword. While David and Goliath are easily identifiable in this painting, Goliath is additionally a cleverly crafted self portrait of Caravaggio himself. Why would Caravaggio purposefully equate himself with the villain of this narrative?

Michelangelo, Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel, 1535-1541, Fresco 

In this classically-styled painting, Michelangelo portrays the last judgement in great detail. He takes the time to also paint himself into the scene of angels, demons and humans. He is the husk of a man held by St. Bartholomew just to the right of the center of the painting. This portrayal has ties to Greek mythology and Michelangelo makes several implications about his own hubris as an artist. This portrayal is not flattering at all, and it calls into question Michelangelo’s purpose in painting his own vice into this scene.

Gustave Courbet, The Desperate Man (Self-Portrait), 1843-1845, Oil on canvas, Private Collection 

This painting is more clearly a self portrait than others in the galley where the face of artist is more obscurely incorporated into their artwork. Courbet portrays himself in this piece with great emotion seen in his facial expression and the gesture of his arms and hands. This alerts the viewer that something is wrong with Courbet, despite the lack of additional contextual evidence in the frame itself. The title illuminates more precisely the emotion shown on Courbet’s face. Why would Courbet choose to represent himself as a “desperate man” to viewers of his work? How does this affect his public image and how people view him as both an artist and a person?

Egon Schiele, Self-Portrait, 1911, Watercolor, gouache, and graphite on paper, 1984.433.298ab 

This self portrait of Egon Schiele strays from straight representation and leaves much to be considered by the viewer in terms of what exactly is happening in this scene. As a self portrait in particular, this portrayal piques interest in what Schiele is trying to inform viewers about himself. His body is unhealthily thin, the colors used are naturalistic yet inconsistent, his facial expression is hard to read and he does not have a right hand. Why does Schiele portray himself in such a way that is difficult to understand, inciting confusion and concern for his well-being?

Salvador Dalí, Soft self portrait with grilled bacon, 1941, Oil on canvas, Town Hall of Figueres, on permanent deposit at the Fundació Gala-Salvador Dalí, Figueres 

This self portrait strays quite far from representation, landing comfortably in the realm of surrealism as is common of some of Dalí’s work. While the face is recognizable as that of a man’s face, there are many aspects of this work that complicate the scene and make it an unnaturalistic portrayal. What does the face dripping off the supports mean? Do the gaping holes for eyes have a deeper meaning? Why is there a strip of bacon on the pedestal? How do all of these elements contribute to Dalí’s purpose in creating this as a self portrait specifically, rather than portraying an unknown man?

References:

Camara, Esperanca. "Last Judgment - Essay By Dr. Esperanca Camara". Khan Academy.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/high-ren-florence-ro

me/michelangelo/a/michelangelo-last-judgment.

Chapman, H. Perry. "Jan Steen's Household Revisited." Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the

History of Art 20, no. 2/3 (1990): 183. doi:10.2307/3780742.

Frantis, Wayne. "Jan Steen." In Dutch Seventeenth-Century Genre Painting Its Stylistic and 

Thematic Evolution, 208,209, 212. Yale University Press, 2004. 

Orientalism: Portraying the East as Exotic

Orientalism: Portraying the East as Exotic

In the nineteenth century, an interest to know about Eastern culture and life grew in the West. The West was filled with a sense of greatness on account of what they considered to be superior and modern culture. Out of this superiority came a pull towards colonization; the East was often looked down upon as less civilized and advanced than the West, supposedly ripe for the taking as it went "untouched" by the modernization of other countries. 

The artistic movement Orientalism developed in order to meet the demand for information about and depictions of Eastern life. Artists in this social movement began painting in specific styles to create realistic portrayals of ‘exotic’ and unknown people. This art became popular and continued to perpetuate ideas of people from 'the Orient' as artists looked for and painted situations that met their expectations.

People from the East were not respected. Instead, they were seen as less human than their Western counterparts. Women were often depicted as sexual objects because of the common idea that exotic women had hyper-sexual appetites. Harems, or odalisques, starred as the subjects for many Orientalist painters that portrayed them as commodities rather than as humans. The men were often painted with animalistic features or doing what would be considered uncultured tasks. 

Orientalist paintings were depictions of Eastern culture by Westerners who either had not visited or whose only information came for short visits to the East. Their paintings did not contain any of the technology or modernization of the East, but rather present it as stuck in the past. 

Bonnat, Léon. An Egyptian Peasant Woman and Her Child,1869.

Oil on canvas. MET Museum, 87.15.97

This painting by Leon Bonnat is of an Egyptian woman carrying her naked son on her shoulders. She has a black robe, exotic face paint, and teal jewelry on, while her son is not covered except by the shawl draped over his head. Bonnat paints with naturalism to create a convincing reality, despite his painting making many assumptions about Eastern women. The viewers at the time saw the two subjects as exotic and rather inhuman, which perpetuates what they already believe about people from the East.

Gérôme, Jean-Léon. Woman at a Balcony, 1887–88.

Oil on canvas. MET Museum, 2015.282.

In this painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, a woman leans enticingly over the railing of a balcony. She wears seductive clothing and golden necklaces. Her face, which is slightly obstructed by a sheer green veil, is remarkably almond shaped and exotic. This is an excellent example of the portrayal of women from the East as exotic and reflects the typical Western mindset of colonization by portraying the Oriental people as objects to be used.

Bonnat, Leon. An Arab Sheik, 1870. 

Oil on canvas. The Walters Art Museum, 37.173.

This painting by Leon Bonnat depicts an old Arab Sheik dressed in layers of red, yellow, and brown fabric. His face is obscured by the shadow on the darkly lit room. The subject appears to be living in a place that is stuck in the past as he sits on the carpeted, cluttered floor without any reference to technology, work, or advancement. Instead, Bonnat is painting the idea of a man that he has created in his head- an Oriental Arab Sheik that is living in an uncultured past.

Gérôme, Jean-Léon. Prayer in the Mosque, 1871. 

Oil on canvas. MET Museum, 87.15.130.

This painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme portrays a praying ceremony inside of a Mosque. In the dusty, bird filled Mosque stand rows of man praying. One man in particular is not dressed but instead only wears a loincloth. Gérôme’s depiction of this Mosque strips away the dignity of the people in the Orient; they are ill-advanced, willing to worship in the dirt and let the Mosque be infested by birds. He perpetuates the idea that these people are less than Westerners, dirty, and uncultured.

Henri Matisse, Odalisque with Gray Trousers, 1927. 

Oil on canvas, MET Museum. 1997.400.

Matisse used Orientalism as an opportunity to paint the female nude. His painting Odalisque with Gray Trousers depicts a reclining female nude in a harem that is decorated with exotic Eastern fabrics and patterns. Matisse is painting later in the Orientalist movement than artists like Bonnat and Delacroix and he moved away from the naturalistic style more representational painting.

The reclining pose makes the woman seem passive, an object for the Westerner to take and use.

Abdul-Hamid II Collection. The Battalion Divers at the Imperial Naval Arsenal, 1880-1893. Photograph, Library of Congress.

In opposition to the western views of the Eastern regions, Ottoman Sultan Abdul-Hamid II commissioned photographs of the Ottoman empire to show its modernization. This picture shows the divers of the Imperial Naval Arsenal with their equipment, several people are wearing their diving suits. This photograph deeply contrasts the paintings of the Orientalist movement by showing the modernism of the people from the region that are often depicted as ‘stuck in the past’.