Women’s Role in Society: Challenging the Status Quo Through Arts

     How are female and male artists different? Is there a distinction that we can point out? Are there artworks that are particularly feminine or masculine? This show seeks to understand how different female artists have interacted with society’s perception of the “correct” place for a woman and how they have challenged the status quo.

    Throughout the majority of history, not only were women’s bodies confined to the domestic environment, but they were also expected to have a limited mind and affections, because women were perceived as gentle creatures, “predisposed to care for others.” Thus, female artists were expected to create artworks that would reflect their tenderness and emotional sensitivity,  with some of the most prominent examples being flowers, fruit, or gardens.

    The artworks collected in this show are all created by female artists, and each sets a different angle on the way we see art and women’s role in society: these women not only made art that challenged culturally accepted norms, but they also defied the “place” imposed on them by simply being artists. Some do it through subject matter and others through literal depiction of women, and all are aiming to carve their path into the art world, which has historically been a male-dominated field. As you walk through this exhibition, each of the artworks will pose various questions, and let this main contemplation fill your mind: how do these female artists negotiate their place in art over time?

Judith Leyster, Self-Portrait, 1630

Oil on canvas, 74.6 × 65.1 cm (29 3/8 × 25 5/8 in.)

National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., United States

Self-portraits serve as a reflection of the artist’s skill and tastefulness: artists would try to use the most intricate techniques and place symbolism into the subject matter to elevate their status. In this artwork, we see Leyster in the middle of working on a painting, in a posture as if inviting the viewer into her studio and trying to talk to us. Her unique style of portraying people’s emotions in, often, joyous or contemplative moments, is evident now; however, her work had for centuries been attributed to male artists.

How has a male-dominated industry of art affected women’s expression of creativity?

Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Beheading Holofernes, 1620

Oil on canvas, 146.5 x 108 cm

Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy

According to the famous narrative in the Book of Judith, Judith kills Holofernes while he is drunk. The subject matter of this artwork is controversial to the traditional portrayal of women: they hold physical power over the man, and their gazes point directly at the male figure. Thus, Gentileschi casts Judith and her maid in what would usually be considered “masculine roles” for their brutality and defiance of passivity. In addition, Gentileschi demonstrates her own power as an artist as she paints a dark, violent, and gory picture.  

What are the attributes we assign to power?

Maria Sibylla Merian, Plate 1 from Dissertation in Insect Generations and Metamorphosis in Surinam, 2nd edition, 1719

Hand-colored engraving on paper, 20 1/2 x 14 1/2 in.

National Museum of Women in the Arts in Washington, D.C., United States 

This painting features a pineapple at the center of the artwork, with several insects on and around it. Merian was an entomologist who transformed the sciences of zoology and botany by drawing insects from observation rather than preserved specimens. Moreover, she published three volumes on European insects, including her own illustrations of insects and plants.  Even though Merian’s subject matter fell within the limits set by expectations of what women artists could create, she still played a revolutionary role in the sciences through an extremely technical, accurate, and rational approach to her studies. 

How does the lack of contribution of women to the sciences, due to limited access to education throughout history, affect our view of the world?

Lilly Martin Spencer, Domestic Happiness, 1849

Oil on canvas, Unframed: 55 1/4 × 45 3/4 inches (140.3 × 116.2 cm)

Detroit Institute of Arts in Detroit, Michigan

 

In this painting, we can see a family of four in the bedroom, with parents leaning over the cradle, likely saying “good night” to their children before bedtime. Reflecting on this painting rapidly, which portrays a “perfect picture of the home,” we may mistakenly assume that it conforms to society’s norms. However, it pokes at the long-established patriarchal order of the family. Spencer’s own life story, being the breadwinner of her family, became influential in her art, as she painted figures modeled after her kids and husband.  Moreover, by directing both the wife’s and the husband’s gaze toward the children, Spencer equalizes the parents in their role in a child’s life. 

How do we imagine gender roles in family settings?

Emily Mary Osborn, Nameless and Friendless, 1857

Oil on canvas, support: 825 × 1038 mm frame: 1042 × 1258 × 75 mm

Tate Britain in London, United Kingdom

 

In her artwork, Osborn paints a merchant’s shop where a young lady stands with, likely, her younger brother, surrounded by men who notice her unusual presence in the store. Although this painting depicts many characters, it represents deep isolation. A young single woman is secluded in society not only because she does not have a husband and is not chaperoned by an adult, but also because her artwork is not accepted by the dealer on the right.  Nineteenth-century society would not take a single woman seriously – for instance, among the elites, her worth would often be determined by her husband’s or her family’s estate. Osborn’s painting draws the audience’s attention to assumptions that seem ordinary.

How do our prejudices or presumptions inform our view of people?

Rosa Bonheur, The Horse Fair, 1852-55

Oil on canvas, 96 1/4 x 199 1/2 in. (244.5 x 506.7 cm)

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, United States

 

Bonheur specialized in painting pets and domesticated animals throughout her career. However, this particular work, depicting horses at a Parisian horse fair, sparked debates about sexuality and gender representation in the paintings’ content. On the one hand, a female artist painted a horse market, where men subjugate the animals, which would be considered masculine subject matter. On the other hand, horses were often a metaphor for women, as they were seen as disruptive and in need of male control, thus adding a layer of, or at least an allusion to, sensuality to this artwork. 

How might our culture oversensualize certain subjects, and how do we know when we participate in it?

Progression of the Artistic Expression of the Mystery of the Dichotomy that is the Christ

    All of these artists are similar in that they are interested in using values, colors, and symbolism to depict the broken body and shed blood of Jesus Christ; however they are different in that they are all from different periods of time, resulting in formal differences in the ways they communicate the sacrifice of Christ. This exhibition explores what we can learn from seeing how artists from different time periods and cultures have chosen to depict Jesus’ crucifixion. In early depictions of the crucifixion, bright colors and golds were used to portray the divinity of Jesus, while in later renditions, darker, more dramatic tones have been used to convey the humanity of Jesus. Many of the artists from earlier time periods painted a brighter, more idealized version of Jesus but as time has gone on, while artists from later time periods but as time has gone on, they’ve used cooler values and darker colors to display a more graphic, naturalistic version of Christ. It’s fascinating to not only see the artistic progress that takes place throughout these paintings, but also an expression of theological progress. In the earlier paintings we see how  Jesus is super divine golden perfect handsome, as time goes on, the paintings of Jesus get increasingly more relatable, human, and bloody. This shows a generational progression in the expression of the suffering of God and what he has done. Jesus came down fully God and fully man, and although looking through these paintings does not fully explain the mystery of the incarnation, it does help us gain a better sense of the dichotomy of Christ.

    Christ on the Vine Cross, early twelfth century. Apse Mosaic, Rome, S. Clemente.

Here we see a sad but graceful Jesus on a dove-laden cross surrounded by gold and green vines spiraled in intricate circles with flowers or heart-vases in their centers. Nearly everything about this version of Jesus screams “divine”: the halo around his head, the way his cross connects to the hand of God that is holding the universe in his hands, and the royal, gold background. We see that Christ and his cross are the center plant of all of the vines that spiral throughout the mosaic. We see too that the “Vines, grapes and wine-making — are symbolic of Christ’s sacrifice and of the Eucharist” (The Image of Christ: The catalogue of the exhibition SEEING SALVATION. Pg. 11).  

The Deposition, about 1500-1505 Master of the Saint Bartholomew Altarpiece (active about 1470 to about 1510) Oil on Oak, 74.9 x 47.3 cm. Inscribed at the top of the cross in Hebrew and Greek: Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews. London, National Gallery, NG 6470

This painting displays both the humanity and divinity of Christ. There is a very royal feel to this work. Here we see somewhat of a golden frame around Jesus, who is being taken down from the cross that he was just crucified on. His pale body is being held by Nicodemus, still in the same position he was crucified in. All of the people down below are dressed in Medieval garb. We even see a human skull in the bottom center of the piece. It’s very bright and also somewhat cartoonish. We also see “Mary Magdalene, whose vase of ointment is on the ground, mourns the death of Christ, while another woman holds the crown of thorns” (The Image of Christ: The catalogue of the exhibition SEEING SALVATION. Pg. 69).  

Raphael, The Crucified Christ with the Virgin Mary, Saints, and Angels (Mond Crucifixion), c.1503. Oil on poplar, 280.7 x 165.1 cm. London, National Gallery, NG 3943. 

This painting displays a less intense, more inviting picture of the crucified Christ surrounded by the Virgin Mary, Saints, and Angels set in front of rivers and rolling hills. The colors here are still bright but are beginning to get quieter and calmer while the figures are getting steadily more graceful and dramatic. For the viewer, something about this painting is quiet and still even though the scene it depicts is not. The warm colors are more reminiscent of Psalm 23 than Psalm 22. 

Matthias Grünewald, Isenheim Altarpiece 1512-1516 Unterlinden Museum at Colmar, Alsace, in France

This painting displays a very bright yet twisted and mangled Christ with broken skin in front of a dark, stormy sky. His limbs are bent at obscure angles, with shadows made apparent by the illumination of his pale flesh. This painting looks like it could have been set at night with a giant spotlight shining on a very graphic, naturalistic depiction of Jesus. This was painted for the Monastery of St. Anthony where the monks specialized in hospital work for those suffering from skin diseases. Jesus is painted with mangled skin and irritated sores to help the viewer see that Jesus could empathize with them in their suffering.

Cecco del Caravaggio, Christ on the Cross. Ca. 1615-20.

This work is painted on a wooden cross, almost giving Jesus’ figure a three dimensional look like he’s coming off of the cross and actually hanging there. His skin is painted a pale, gold color that makes him shine off of the wooden background. His torso is also unusually long, as if stretched from hours of hanging from the nails in his hands. The lines in his skin are unattractively emphasized. At the foot of the cross we see a skull with cross bones and splintered wood seemingly symbolizing the inevitability of death. 

Hendrick ter Brugghen, The Crucifixion with the Virgin and Saint John, ca. 1624-25, oil on canvas, 61 in. × 40 1/4 in. (154.9 × 102.2 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Here we see the dimmest painting of the crucifixion yet. Here we have cold, starkly, white Jesus hanging from the cross. His body is bent in unnatural obscure angles. We can see the stress put on his forearms by the nails in his hands. His skin sags and shadows overtake him. Bright blood streams from his exposed wounds down to the ground where the Virgin Mary and Saint John stand near a human skull and pile of bones. The background is a murky brown color that brightens into an eerie yellow near the bottom of the painting. There’s a certain unbearable heaviness to this painting that confronts the viewer facing it.

Salvador Dalí, Christ of Saint John of the Cross, 1951 (1904-1989) Oil on canvas, 204.8 x 115.9 cm. Signed GALA. S. DALÍ Glasgow Museums, The St Mungo Museum of Religious Life and Art

Dali paints Christ in utter darkness, yet illuminated. The naturalistic, ugliness of his back as well as unattractive, wrinkled hands are displayed upon a crisp concrete-looking cross hanging in the sky over a boat in a body of water. The tones here are extremely dramatic and every line in his skin is made known by shadows. When looking at this piece, viewers should come away with a sense of relatability to Jesus in his humanity in his ugliness yet also simultaneously see the divinity of Jesus in the way he is above all of creation. It is a mystery to our understanding and yet is accepted and believed.

Picasso: Searching for God in the Art of the Past

Pablo Picasso struggled with Christianity his entire life. He was raised in the Roman Catholic church but eventually fell away and adhered to atheism during his adult life. Despite this, Picasso often created art featuring Christian themes, providing evidence of his internal wrestling with his Christian upbringing. By evaluating such works alongside pieces which may have been a part of Picasso’s visual archive, we can gain insight into not only the sort of visual iconography that interested Picasso, but also the religious themes which caught his attention as well. In doing so, one can begin to better understand the personal relationship that Picasso had with Christianity and what factors were at play which made this relationship so complex. We can begin to answer the question of which aspects of the Christian faith were perhaps most compelling to Picasso; in other words, why did Picasso keep wrestling with the faith? This collection features three of Picasso’s works, which are accompanied by three works from other artists which appeared to have resonated with him via their religious imagery. The first pairing of works addresses the themes of blindness in both a physical and spiritual sense, while the second pairing focuses on the imagery of Christ as the Good Shepherd. Finally, the third pairing centers around the scene of the crucifixion. 

Christ Healing the Blind
El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos)

ca. 1570, oil on canvas, 47 x 57 1/2 in. 

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY (Object 1978.416)

In this piece, El Greco makes certain compositional choices in order to draw our eyes to the blind man being healed by Christ. In particular, the elongated arms of the man serve to convey the man’s heightened sense of touch to the viewers, while his shadowy, dark eyes clearly show that he is unable to see. As Christ paces his right hand on the man's eyes, the man is healed from his physical blindness, and the viewers are, in turn, encouraged to evaluate their own spiritual blindness that lies in our hearts.

The Blind Man’s Meal

Pablo Picasso

1903, oil on canvas, 37.5 x 37.25 in.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY (Object 50.188)

In this early 20th century painting, it is apparent that Picasso adapted the same visual language used by El Greco to symbolize blindness, from the man’s long, slender arms, to the darkening of the man’s eyes. Even the lighter values around the man’s ear ties back to the subtle splash of light utilized by El Greco around his blind man’s ear. Perhaps as Picasso saw the work of El Greco, he identified with the theme of fighting through spiritual blindness. In his own depiction of a blind man, who is reaching for the sacraments, Picasso conveys a hint of his desire to have communion with the Lord, despite his personal shortcomings.

Statuette of the Good Shepherd

Unknown

Late 3rd-early 4th century AD, white marble, 39 x 14 x 10 ½ in.

Pius Christian Museum, Vatican City

This statuette, crafted from white marble, is one of the earliest depictions of Christian themes in visual art. The motif of Christ as the Good Shepherd was a frequently utilized theme for early Christian artists as they attempted to convey truths about the Christian faith in a way that the surrounding world could understand. As such, these artists borrowed the idea of the “ram-bearer” from the Roman tradition, which often depicted men carrying rams as a sign of faithfulness in offering sacrifices to the gods. Thus, Christian artists using this theme sought to convey the truth about Christ being the ultimate sacrificial Lamb for our sins, as well as being the perfect Shepherd who leads us down the path to righteousness.

Man with a Lamb

Pablo Picasso

1943, bronze, 79.5 × 28 in.

Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, PA

Picasso’s bronze sculpture Man with a Lamb features a solemn man, crafted without much detail at all, holding a lamb in his arms in front of him. While Picasso did not choose to depict the man traditionally, that is, with the lamb over his shoulders, he certainly alludes to the theme of the Good Shepherd with this piece. This imagery is relevant to Picasso’s personal story as well: despite his fall away from the faith, he still appeared to find the concept of a loving God who never turns his back on his wandering sheep quite compelling.

Isenheim Altarpiece

Matthias Grünewald 

1512-1516, oil and tempera on limewood, 148 x 263 in.

Unterlinden Museum, Colmar, France

Matthias Grünewald’s Isenheim Altarpiece is one of the most powerful, yet emotional depictions of the crucifixion that exists. The raw sorrow and anguish of Mary the mother of Christ on the left and Mary Magdalene at the foot of Christ serve as a vivid reminder of the sheer horror of Christ’s death. Further, the emaciated skin and twisting, broken fingers and feet of Christ remind us of his Humanity and of the fact that He truly did embrace humanity and a painful death for our sins.

Crucifixion

Pablo Picasso

1930, oil on plywood, 20 x 26 in.

Musée Picasso, Paris, France

At first glance, it may be hard to connect Picasso’s painting of the crucifixion to the Isenheim Altarpiece in any way other than the subject matter. However, upon closer inspection, there are more connections between these two pieces. Picasso captures the horror of the scene through the distorted, exaggerated weeping of a figure who appears to be Mary Magdalene, painted in white in the center of the piece. The bright, high-contrast colors which cover this painting are intentionally used by Picasso to depict the confusion and drama of the crucifixion, but Picasso gives a nod to the Isenheim Altarpiece via the pitch-black background that he paints behind the cross. This black background seems to have a motif that Picasso found meaningful, as he contemplated the darkness of the crucifixion, alongside the darkness in his own heart which kept Him from clinging to Christ.

Politics and Fashion in Post-Napoleonic Germany

During the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon came to dominate the continent of Europe, imposing French values, culture and fashion on those he conquered. When his empire came to an end with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, there were differing views on how the continent should be reordered. Austria's chief negotiator, Prince Klemens von Metternich, represented the Conservative order: desiring to restore Europe to its previous structure and preserve France as a great power. Meanwhile, among German university students, Romantic Nationalism was growing as a liberal revolutionary movement. Romanticism was largely a reaction to the Enlightenment. It contrasted the Enlightenment values of Neo-classicism and control of nature with local folk tradition and the idea of the sublime: the vastness of the wilderness and the awe it inspires in the individual. 

Many of the students involved in this movement dressed in the style of Altdeutsche Tracht, modeled after 16th and 17th century German clothing as an alternative to the French fashions popular at the time. The Romantic artist Caspar David Friedrich was one of those who used Altdeutsche Tracht as a way to signal his belief in a unified German culture, in opposition to the imposed French Enlightenment culture of the Napoleonic age. Metternich sought to suppress these student movements with heavy censorship in 1819, after the murder of playwright August von Kotzebue. Tensions would continue to build until 1848, when a revolution broke out in an attempt to create a unified German nation state, but was ultimately suppressed by conservative forces.

Portrait of Madame de Verninac

Jacques-Louis David

1799

Oil on canvas

Paris: Musée du Louvre, RF 1942-16.

Jacques-Louis David was one of the artists favored by Napoleon, who used his work and the work of other artists like Ingres as a part of his propaganda effort. Napoleon fashioned himself as a Roman emperor, and French culture bent towards the Greco-Roman during his reign. This portrait depicts a young, aristocratic woman in the Neo-classical inspired clothing of the Empire period. Minimalism, clean lines and the color white were all key elements of Empire fashion, meant to reflect marble statues.

Fashion Plate: Costume Parisien

Unknown

1817

Hand-colored engraving

London: The Victoria & Albert Museum, E.22396:95-1957.

This fashion plate depicts the fashionable style of the late 1810s. Though Europe was post-napoleonic by this time, the French remained the fashion trendsetters of Europe, as they had been even before Napoleon's reign. Fashion plates were engravings on copper or steel which could transfer an image multiple times. Before the mid 19th century the printings were costly, and mostly accessible to the aristocratic and bourgeois classes. Fashion plates disseminated through women's magazines allowed French fashion to travel across Europe.

Hermann von Wedigh III (died 1560)

Hans Holbein the Younger

1532

Oil and gold on oak

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 50.135.4

This portrait represents the clothing of upper class Germans from the 16th century, which the nationalist students drew inspiration from. The book under his arm is likely a Protestant Bible, reflecting the strong north German tradition of protestantism, a key component in the desire for German unification. Klemens von Metternich, along with the lands of Austria, was devoutly catholic. German national unification along protestant lines would have caused Austria to lose power on the European stage.

Two Men Contemplating the Moon

Caspar David Friedrich

1825-30

Oil on canvas

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.51

In Two Men Contemplating the Moon, Caspar David Friedrich depicts himself and his favorite student August Heinrich standing in a mysterious autumnal landscape. Their backs are turned from the viewer, but the outline of their hats, cloaks and loose trousers are clearly identifiable as Altdeutsche Tracht. Friedrich's art is a leading example of German Romanticism, as it emphasizes man's smallness before a distinctly German landscape. This is the third version of the work, based on earlier versions done before Metternich's censorship outlawed the wearing of this style of Tracht in 1819. 

Frontispiece, A Memoir of Charles Louis Sand : including a narrative of the circumstances attending the death of Augustus von Kotzebue : also, A defense of the German universities

Unknown

1819

Engraving

London : Printed for G. & W.B. Whittaker, University of California Libraries, nrlf_ucb:GLAD-151521655.

Depicted in this engraving is the student Karl Ludwig Sand, anglicized as Charles Louis Sand, who was executed in 1819 for the murder of the playwright August von Kotzebue. This murder would lead to Metternich's censorship of the student nationalist movement, but Sand's execution gave the movement a martyr which would fuel it for years to come. Sand is shown here in Altdeutsche Tracht, and particularly, the same type of hat as Friedrich and Heinrich in Two Men Contemplating the Moon.

Germania

Philipp Veit

1848

Oil on fabric

Nationalmuseum in Nürnberg

Germania is a depiction of the united German state, clothed in medieval germanic clothing rather than the simple drapery of Neo-classicism. Where Napoleon had used Greco-Roman imagery to legitimize his power, the German nationalists harkened to the germanic tribes who opposed Rome. This painting was made as an appeal to German unity, created for St. Paul's Church (Paulskirche) in Frankfurt, where the first German parliament met in 1848 after a nationalist revolution. In 1849, the conservatives regained control, and Germania was taken down. 

Der Neue Altdeutsche

C.G.H. Geisler

1820

Ink drawing

Both I and an actually tech savvy friend tried everything and could not find where this existed beyond wikipedia, despite the artist having other works in the Victoria & Albert Museum. Because I cannot find this, it is not one of my objects, but I thought I would still include it as an extra because the hypocrisy of nationalism is very important to point out, but take it with a grain of salt.

The text of the engraving says, “Deutsch ist mein Sinn, und mein Gewand vom feinsten Tuch aus Engeland”, which translates to, ”My mind is German, and my costume

is made of finest English cloth”. This satirical engraving was meant to point out the hypocrisy of nationalist students’ supposedly traditional German costume.