The Baroque period describes a movement in European art from the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the classicism of the Renaissance, Baroque art was characterized by a naturalistic style and dramatic narrative, often achieved by tenebrism and dynamic lines. The movement created an immersive experience, appealing to the audience’s senses. This dramatic narrative style lent itself to depicting biblical narratives, as Christian religious art was valuable to both the Catholic Church and private collectors.
Many artists took creative license in the painting’s content, achieving dramatic narrative by making the characters either contemporary or classical. A contemporary setting was in part an effort by the Catholic Church during the Counter Reformation to become more accessible, so viewers could identify with the Biblical characters. Yet, when accounting for deviations based on these new contexts, it is still worthwhile to compare the depicted story to the original biblical narrative. While biblical narratives themselves are often sparse, we can still often extrapolate the nature of the characters and the overall drift of the narrative. Thus, do the paintings represent the original story? And if they deviate, for what purpose? The paintings have been paired with the excerpts of the original texts for the convenience of comparison. Notably, these texts have been taken out of context and so more a more in-depth analysis would account for the character and story’s larger context.
Jacob Jordaens
The Sacrifice of Isaac
1630 CE
Oil on Canvas
Palazzo Brera, Milan
So Abraham rose early in the morning, saddled his donkey, and took two of his young men with him, and his son Isaac. And he cut the wood for the burnt offering and arose and went to the place of which God had told him...Then Abraham said to his young men, “Stay here with the donkey; I and the boy will go over there and worship and come again to you.” And Abraham took the wood of the burnt offering and laid it on Isaac his son. And he took in his hand the fire and the knife. So they went both of them together. And Isaac said to his father Abraham, “My father!” And he said, “Here I am, my son.” He said, “Behold, the fire and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt offering?” Abraham said, “God will provide for himself the lamb for a burnt offering, my son.” So they went both of them together. When they came to the place of which God had told him, Abraham built the altar there and laid the wood in order and bound Isaac his son and laid him on the altar, on top of the wood. Then Abraham reached out his hand and took the knife to slaughter his son. But the angel of the Lord called to him from heaven and said, “Abraham, Abraham!” And he said, “Here I am.” He said, “Do not lay your hand on the boy or do anything to him, for now I know that you fear God, seeing you have not withheld your son, your only son, from me.” Genesis 22:1-12 (ESV)
In his work Fear and Trembling, Kierkegaard imagines four different versions of the story of Abraham sacrificing Isaac, juxtaposing the rightness of the act morally and religiously. His versions of the story highlight the ambiguity of the narrative. Did Abraham believe that God would intercede? Some readers believe he implies he and Isaac will return together, so Abraham must trust that God would still fulfill his covenant through Isaac somehow. But does Isaac trust God? Does he trust his father? Many paintings portray Isaac forcefully bound to the altar, but this one shows him seemingly willingly being sacrificed. Jacob Jordaen’s depiction demonstrates the interpretive judgements the artist must make, even while trying to be faithful to the original story.
Artemisia Gentileschi
Esther Before Ahasuerus
c. 1620 CE
Oil on Canvas
69.281
On the third day Esther put on her royal robes and stood in the inner court of the king's palace, in front of the king's quarters, while the king was sitting on his royal throne inside the throne room opposite the entrance to the palace. And when the king saw Queen Esther standing in the court, she won favor in his sight, and he held out to Esther the golden scepter that was in his hand. Then Esther approached and touched the tip of the scepter. And the king said to her, “What is it, Queen Esther? What is your request? It shall be given you, even to the half of my kingdom.” And Esther said, “If it please the king, let the king and Haman come today to a feast that I have prepared for the king.” Esther 5:1–4 (ESV)
In this painting, Artemisia Gentileschi takes the story of Esther interceding for her people and renders it theatrically, emphasizing Esther as the heroine. The sumptuous costuming and simplified setting generate the air of a play. Despite the invention of the setting, Artemisia Gentileschi’s portrayal of the characters seems faithful to the original story. Esther has to use intelligence and manipulation to effectively provoke the king to action. With a purposeful divergence from the text, Ahasuerus does not hold his sceptre. This, along with being dressed as a frivolous dandy, corresponds with his Biblical portrayal as foolish, lazy, and vain.
Guercino
Abraham Casting Out Hagar and Ishmael
1657 CE
Oil on Canvas
Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan
But Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, whom she had borne to Abraham, laughing. So she said to Abraham, “Cast out this slave woman with her son, for the son of this slave woman shall not be heir with my son Isaac.” And the thing was very displeasing to Abraham on account of his son. But God said to Abraham, “Be not displeased because of the boy and because of your slave woman. Whatever Sarah says to you, do as she tells you, for through Isaac shall your offspring be named. And I will make a nation of the son of the slave woman also, because he is your offspring.” So Abraham rose early in the morning and took bread and a skin of water and gave it to Hagar, putting it on her shoulder, along with the child, and sent her away. And she departed and wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba. Genesis 21:9–14 (ESV)
Guercino sets this story theatrically as well. Although we know from the larger Biblical narrative that Abraham was a wanderer, a column rising in the background sets them in a classical context. Hagar and Ishmael pose on the right, sorrowfully being turned away, while Sarah stands in the background apart from the scene. Abraham’s hand gestures also seem theatrical and define his character as stern and resolved. Yet this seems incongruent with the text, which denotes Abraham’s displeasure twice, suggesting his affection for his son Ishmael. Still, the resoluteness of his gestures reflects that the absoluteness of a divine commandment.
Rembrandt van Rijn
The Raising of Lazarus
1630 CE
Oil on Panel
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles
Now when Jesus came, he found that Lazarus had already been in the tomb four days...Then Jesus, deeply moved again, came to the tomb. It was a cave, and a stone lay against it. Jesus said, “Take away the stone.” Martha, the sister of the dead man, said to him, “Lord, by this time there will be an odor, for he has been dead four days.” Jesus said to her, “Did I not tell you that if you believed you would see the glory of God?” So they took away the stone. And Jesus lifted up his eyes and said, “Father, I thank you that you have heard me. I knew that you always hear me, but I said this on account of the people standing around, that they may believe that you sent me.” When he had said these things, he cried out with a loud voice, “Lazarus, come out.” The man who had died came out, his hands and feet bound with linen strips, and his face wrapped with a cloth. Jesus said to them, “Unbind him, and let him go.” John 11:17, 38-44 (ESV)
Rembrandt creates a sense of awe at this climactic miracle. The light shining on the onlookers creates an area of high contrast, highlighting their looks of amazement. Jesus unambiguously reveals his divine power as, with hand raised, he calls Lazarus back to life. As pulled by Jesus’ hand, Lazarus rises from his tomb in answer to his command. This painting fits well with a literal reading of the text, that Lazarus himself came out in response to Jesus’ command. Some depictions of this scene show Lazarus being carried or held by others. Jesus’ human nature is also evident by his facial expression, almost one of surprise. This seems somewhat inconsistent with Jesus assurance in God’s power.
Luca Giordano
The Judgement of Solomon
1665 CE
Oil on Canvas
Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid
Then two prostitutes came to the king and stood before him...the other woman said, “No, the living child is mine, and the dead child is yours.” The first said, “No, the dead child is yours, and the living child is mine.” Thus they spoke before the king... And the king said, “Bring me a sword.” So a sword was brought before the king. And the king said, “Divide the living child in two, and give half to the one and half to the other.” Then the woman whose son was alive said to the king, because her heart yearned for her son, “Oh, my lord, give her the living child, and by no means put him to death.” But the other said, “He shall be neither mine nor yours; divide him.” Then the king answered and said, “Give the living child to the first woman, and by no means put him to death; she is his mother.” And all Israel heard of the judgment that the king had rendered, and they stood in awe of the king, because they perceived that the wisdom of God was in him to do justice. 1 Kings 3:16, 22-28 (ESV)
Giordano’s painting exemplifies the dramatic narrative characteristic of the Baroque style, with multiple elements of the story happening simultaneously. On the left, the two women appeal to Solomon, while an added older woman completes the diagonal line. On the right King Solomon points to one woman, while three men lean into the action from behind. In the center a man holds an infant upside-down, swinging his arm. All the characters form a pyramid, their gestures create a dynamic energy. While it seems unlikely that Solomon stood in sassy contrapposto during this judgement, his pose compares him to previous depictions of rulers, emphasizing his authority and success as a ruler, which seems fitting for a story illustrating his wisdom.
Diego Velazquez
Christ in the House of Mary and Martha
1620 CE
Oil on Canvas
National Gallery, London
Now as they went on their way, Jesus entered a village. And a woman named Martha welcomed him into her house. And she had a sister called Mary, who sat at the Lord's feet and listened to his teaching. But Martha was distracted with much serving. And she went up to him and said, “Lord, do you not care that my sister has left me to serve alone? Tell her then to help me.” But the Lord answered her, “Martha, Martha, you are anxious and troubled about many things, but one thing is necessary. Mary has chosen the good portion, which will not be taken away from her. Luke 10:38-42 (ESV)
Velzquez combines the Baroque dramatic narrative with elements of Dutch painting. Like Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait, a mirror reflects Mary sitting at the feet of Jesus. Martha works in the foreground, next to a still life of fish and eggs. As in the painting of Solomon’s wisdom, another woman has been inserted, but with a more active role. She pokes Martha, as if to goad Martha into disapproval at Mary’s lack of help. While the scene in the mirror seems rather peaceful, the old woman’s gesture creates tension in the center scene.
Caravaggio
Rest on the Flight to Egypt
1597 CE
Oil on Canvas
Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome
Now when they had departed, behold, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream and said, “Rise, take the child and his mother, and flee to Egypt, and remain there until I tell you, for Herod is about to search for the child, to destroy him.” And he rose and took the child and his mother by night and departed to Egypt. Matthew 2:13-14 (ESV)
The flight to Egypt was a fairly common subject, although there is not much detail in the Biblical text. According to Christian tradition, Joseph, Mary, and Jesus stopped to rest beneath palm trees and rest. Yet this painting is unique in its depiction of an angel serenading the family while Joseph acts as a music stand. Caravaggio does seem to be rather pushing the limits of creative license. Still the presence of the angel could reflect God’s presence and his divine protection in their lives.
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