Picturing Penitence: A Comparison in Counter-Reformation Art

Since the days of early Christianity, artists have created tangible representations of church doctrines through formal and private commissions. When the church split during the sixteenth century, this tradition blossomed under the Counter-Reformation (1545-1648), a movement responding to Protestant dissidents focused on restoring church authority through structural reorganization. At the Council of Trent in 1545, the Church reinstituted the seven sacraments as necessary doctrines for salvation and enabled artists to represent these doctrines within their work. Artists, given their conventional allegiance, quickly filled the Church’s order, and naturalistic artworks of saints reflecting these sacraments erupted onto the art scene.

In particular, the sacrament of penance became a central subject for Counter-Reformation art. By depicting saints in a mental state of penitence, or the regret and rejection of personal and worldly sins, Counter-Reformation artists immersed their audiences in a physical experience of penance. Primarily, penitent saints were depicted in either intense meditations upon or dramatic realizations of their sin manifested through both biblical and clerical saints. This exhibit explores the differences and similarities between meditative and immediate depictions of penitence in Counter-Reformation art. At the heart of the show resides Georges de La Tour’s The Penitent Magdalen. During the Counter-Reformation, Mary Magdalen, known for her transformative life from prostitute to devout Christian, became a figurehead for the sacrament of penance. La Tour, who actually painted several different Magdalens, captures both the dramatic and meditative aspects of Counter-Reformation art in his Penitent Magdalen. By examining different expressions of penitence in Counter-Reformation art, La Tour’s union of meditative and immediate depictions is made clear, as he holds both forms in tension through particular setting, posture, icons, and use of tenebrism evoking a heightened sense of penance.

Saint Francis in Meditation, Caravaggio, ca. 1606, oil on canvas, The Capuchin Museum and Crypt (image accessible on the Web Gallery of Art).

Caravaggio depicts the clerical Saint Francis, founder of the Franciscan monks, in an intense, meditative state of penitence. Kneeling in front of a golden cross that extends into the viewer’s plane, Francis gazes intently on a skull gripped in his hands and reflects upon the cost of his salvation through Jesus’ sacrifice. Skulls in the Counter-Reformation became a common motif representing one’s deep contemplation upon the transience of this world. As such, its presence advances Francis’ meditative penitence. Furthermore, the lines formed by his posture form a triangular shape evoking a sense of eternality in the steady contemplation of his sins. Caravaggio also utilizes tenebrisim (dramatic contrasts in light and dark) to heighten the intensity of Francis’ penitent concentration regarding the weight of his sin. Although not a dramatic realization of his depravity, Caravaggio’s Saint Francis functions as a clear image of contemplative penitence for viewers of Counter-Reformation art.

The Penitent St. Peter, El Greco, ca. 1590-1595, oil on canvas, San Diego Museum of Art.

El Greco’s painting presents the biblical Saint Peter in a dramatic realization of penitence following his denial of Jesus three times. In the background, Mary Magdalen emerges to relay the good news of Jesus’ resurrection, but Peter remains consumed by his immediate regret. With hands folded and head theatrically turned aside from the viewer, Peter’s posture communicates a dramatic disgust with his sin and the world around him. Furthermore, the keys tied upon Peter’s wrist appear to be in a pendulum motion, implying a recent burst of energy rippling from his body and a more immediate repentance. Similar to Caravaggio, El Greco employs tenebrisim to create a sense of drama and tension. Still the posturing of Peter and absence of a skull indicates to viewers an instant of penitence rather than a contemplative meditation upon the cost of sin and transience of this world.

Saint Jerome as Penitent, Guercino, ca. 17^th century, red chalk, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

While baroque artists typically used oil on canvas to depict penitent saints, it is important to recognize Counter-Reformation artists conveyed the same acts of penitence on different mediums. Guercino, for instance, presents Saint Jerome in a meditative reflection on his sins in red chalk. Jerome, standing partially clothed almost camouflaged among the rocks, stares intently upon Jesus being crucified. One hand grips the bottom of the cross while the other extends palm forward, as if he was a traffic director motioning one to stop. In comparison to El Greco’s Peter, this pausing motion reflects Jerome’s steady meditation upon his sins rather than an immediate denial. Similar to Caravaggio’s Saint Francis, Jerome’s posture creates a triangular outline that parallels the cross suggesting a permanent penitence. Though Guercino used neither skull nor tenebrisim, Jerome’s unbroken focus upon Jesus' crucifixion implies a meditative penitence to its audience.

The Prodigal Son Kneeling Repentant among Swine, Salvator Rosa, ca. 1615-1673, pen and brown ink, 66.1.

Though not a saint, Salvator Rosa portrays the prodigal son from Jesus' parable in an immediate act of penitence. Made with pen and brown ink rather than oil on canvas, Rosa presents the narrative moment of the prodigal son realizing his depraved state among the swine. Set in the wilderness, the prodigal son lives separated from the world not by choice but rather by consequence of his actions. Kneeling upon the hard, rocky ground while swine roam around him, the prodigal son’s position is certainly not one that will be maintained for long. As he turns his face upwards towards the sky and crosses his arms upon his chest, the prodigal son’s posture further relays an immediate recognition and regret rather than contemplative reflection upon the consequence of his sin. The absence of a skull further relates a dramatic moment of penitence rather than meditation to its viewer.

The Repentant Magdalen, Georges de La Tour, ca. 1635/1640, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art.

Rather than set his paintings in the wilderness, La Tour focuses his Magdalen’s inside rendering their penitence through posture, icons, and tenebrisim. In this La Tour, Saint Magdalen, the primary saint of penance during the Counter-Reformation, is depicted in a period of contemplative repentance. Surrounded by a simple room and furnishings, it is clear Magdalen has already denounced her previous life of vanity. Magdalen’s head rests upon one hand leaning on the table while the other extends lightly upon the skull in front of her. The presence of a skull, as noted earlier, reflects Magdalen’s meditative penitence in relation to the transience of his world. A single flame emerges from behind the skull, revealing Magdalen’s concentration upon the spiritual light and rejection of worldly darkness. Furthermore, La Tour utilizes a fluent tenebrisim that easily transitions from light to shadow cultivating intensity in Magdalen’s contemplative reflection upon her past sins.

The Penitent Magdalen, Georges de La Tour, ca. 1640, oil on canvas, 1978.517.

La Tour’s Penitent Magdalen combines aspects of both meditative and immediate penitence. Surrounded by elegance and signs of vanity, such as the mirror and broken jewelry upon the floor, Magdalen is seen experiencing her initial moment of repentance. Similar to El Greco’s Peter and Rosa’s Prodigal Son, Magdalen turns aggressively away from the viewer and towards the back wall in an instant of recognition and disgust of her sin. However, her immediate posture is challenged by the presence of a skull on her lap. With hands folded upon the skull, Magdalen seems to be in a state of contemplative repentance. Additionally, La Tour utilizes tenebrisim not only emphasizing a dramatic reflection but also creating a sense of tense action, as seen in a strict slice between light and shadow behind Magdalen’s face. By uniting aspects of meditative and momentary penitence, La Tour, submerses viewers in an overwhelming experience of penance.