La Pucelle d'Orléans: A Transcendent Visionary

The small town of Domrémy-la-Pucelle in eastern France was just a normal medieval town in the 15th century. No one of importance came from this region and nothing important happened there. Until the year 1425 during the Hundred Year’s War. A teenage French girl claimed to have a divine mission to free France from the oppressive English feudal occupation. Joan of Arc is not just another name in a history book. She has since become an icon that has transcended time holding lasting political, religious, and social meaning. Images, paintings, and sculptures referencing her character and courage has since inspired people, countries, and kingdoms all around the world. The Maid of Orleans has become a heroine of legend not just inspiring to her contemporary time of the 1400s, but also later in the 19th century. Because of this impact on countless individuals, Joan of Arc has meant a multitude of things in different contexts. She has symbolized political and military power as well as national identity for monarchs and governments. Common people and artists have seen her as a figure of standing up for the oppressed, freedom, and resilience. No matter what time period or people group, the representation of Joan of Arc is a lasting impactful symbol in the world.

Peter Paul Rubens

Joan of Arc at Prayer

c. 1620

oil on canvas

181.6 cm x 116.2 cm

North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina

This artwork comes from the early 17^th century; a time when the royal courts of Europe were commissioning allegorical, spiritual, and idealistic history paintings. Peter Paul Rubens, a well-known Flemish artist from this time, has many of his works commissioned by Marie de'Medici of France and other monarchs from England and Spain. Joan of Arc at Prayer was found among his possessions after he died and is now displayed at the North Carolina Museum of Art in Raleigh, NC. From the context of Ruben’s many other paintings of this time period, he was commissioned by multiple countries to make paintings with symbolic themes regarding divine favor, national heritage, and military power. With this background, it is fascinating that such a simple peasant girl from France could emit such strong national ideas and feelings.

Hermann Anton Stilke

Appearance of Saints Catherine and Michael to Joan of Arc

1843

oil on canvas

119.5 cm × 83.5 cm

Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg

Appearance of Saints Catherine and Michael to Joan of Arc was first painted in the post-Napoleonic era by the German painter Hermann Anton Stilke. He had first created this work as a part of a triptych for the personal collection of an English aristocrat. The other two panels showed Joan leading the French army in battle and her being burden at the stake. This artwork had also been replicated by Stilke and displayed in Berlin and other locations. One day in 1838, Stilke’s studio in Dusseldorf was visited by an unexpected visitor; the Grand Duke Alexander Nikolayevich. He was of the royal Russian family and would eventually be on the throne in his later years. Nikolayevich was so impressed and inspired by Stilke’s depiction of the chivalrous maiden, that he wanted to have the triptych for his own. Since then, Appearance of Saints Catherine and Michael to Joan of Arc along with the other two parts have been in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg. Joan of Arc was not only an exemplary political symbol cherished by the French, but also by the Russians.

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres

Joan of Arc at the Coronation of Charles VII

1854

oil on canvas

 240 cm x 178 cm

Musée du Louvre, Paris

This artwork by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres is one of the most famous paintings of Joan of Arc. It is currently in The Louvre, in Paris. It is quite fitting that this large portrait representing French nationalism is in the capital. Ingres painted Joan of Arc at the Coronation of Charles VII  with much aid from assistants for a state commission in honor of Napoleon III. During this season in France, patriotism and pride for one’s country was all the rage. Love for national heroes such as the Young Maid of Orleans shaped the culture of the 19th century. Paintings of Joan of Arc were not merely symbolic or historical, they represented ideological truths about the strength, resilience, and power of France. The iconography of Joan began to be realized as not just a French heroine, but as an image of social and political influence. Joan stood as a beacon of truth, justice, and freedom for those oppressed, a sentiment that would resonate with many cultures over the centuries.

Jules Bastien-Lepage

Joan of Arc

1879  

oil on canvas

100" x 110"

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City

Joan of Arc  is a painting of Jules Bastien-Lepage, a 19th century realist painter from the region between east France and Germany called Alscase-Lorainne. This area of Europe had been fought over between France and Germany for centuries. Interestingly, this area in France is historically where Joan of Arc was from. Bastien-Lepage’s work was created a few years after the end of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). This work of Joan of Arc was one of many statements of French nationalism to subvert Germany’s role in that time of turmoil. Germany traumatized French citizens, when it permanently annexed almost all eastern France. The Alscase-Lorainne region was not regained by France until after World War I. This painting has since been moved to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.

Emmanuel Frémiet

Joan of Arc

1874

gilded bronze

400 cm

Displayed in the Place des Pyramides, Paris

This statue was made in Paris during the period of Napoleon III, when the French suffered an incredible loss of morale after their humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. As a result of this sentiment, a surge in yearning for purpose and national identity was felt across France. Joan of Arc was the perfect candidate to inspire and uplift the people of France. Statues and paintings went up everywhere in France to remember their strength and heritage ignited by the teenage girl from Lorraine. This iconography of Joan of Arc has since transcended her contemporary time period and country to impact people and cultures around the world. In addition to being in Paris, this statue by Frémiet has been copied and displayed in multiple locations world-wide such as Nancy, France, New Orleans Louisiana, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, Portland, Oregon, and Melbourne, Australia. These more modern statues still hold a political and social meaning to their local people and cultures of eternal heroism, strong identity, and endurance in time of hardship.

A Glimpse of Girlhood

Since the times of Ancient Greece, artists have been fascinated by the “in-between”—that elusive moment between stillness and movement, thought and action, youthfulness and maturity. And few in-betweens have provided as much inspiration as that of girlhood. A girl is a fascinating subject, after all. So often soft, serene, and graceful; so often concealing a rebellious spirit that defies the conventions of her sex. The girls depicted here are not all the same: they vary in color, place, and time. But they’re all bound together by the paradoxes they embody: vulnerability and nonchalance, order and rebellion, imagination and dissolution.

This collection of paintings, from the latter half of the 19th century to mid-20th century, invites viewers to explore the paradoxes of girlhood. Why do these girls seem so troubled? Why are they all trapped inside on such a beautiful day? What are they thinking about? Or are they just all very, very bored? Be intrigued by the juxtaposition of prim interiors and melancholy subjects, be unsettled by budding sexuality, and marvel at the ambiguity of female adolescence. But above all, don’t go looking for an explanation. Because these girls, whether gazing off lost in thought, or gracing onlookers with a lukewarm glance, won’t answer your questions. They’re much too cool for that.

The Brooding Woman (Te vahine fa'atūruma)

Paul Gauguin

1891

Oil on canvas

35.9 x 27 in.

Worcester Art Museum

In this colorful painting by Gauguin, a shapely Tahitian woman sits criss-crossed on the floor. Through an open doorway behind her, a porch with a sitting dog is visible, and beyond it a figure rides a horse outside. In the foreground sits a hat, some fruit, and a bundle of burning herbs. The young woman wears a thin white garment and props her chin on her hand, apparently pensive or “brooding”—as the title of the work suggests.

Julie Daydreaming

Berthe Morisot

1894

Oil on canvas

25.2 x 21.26 in.

Private Collection

Berthe Morisot paints her daughter Julie, age sixteen, in this portrait. Julie’s youthful elegance in a flowy white gown is a stark contrast to the dark brown backdrop, and she almost seems to emit a blue-green glow. Her chestnut hair falls in loose waves down her back and over her shoulders, and one of her hands lightly cups her cheek, the other lying open on her lap. Her almond eyes peer lackadaisically at her observer, making her appear haughty, or perhaps just blasé.

Kept In

Edward Lamson Henry

1889

Oil on canvas

18.5 x 22.75 in.

Fenimore Art Museum

In this piece, American artist E.L.Henry depicts a young black girl alone in her schoolroom. She wears a red dress and shabby black stocking with a hole exposing her knee. The wood-panelled room appears worn, and school things are strewn about, including a forgotten book that lies open on the floor. The girl sits back on a blue bench, head resting on her hands, and gazes out the window as if longing to join those outside.

Little Girl in a Blue Armchair

Mary Cassatt

1878

Oil on canvas

35.25 x 51.13 in.

National Gallery of Art

Little Girl in a Blue Armchair is one of Mary Cassatt’s first impressionist works. Her young subject slouches on a silky, patterned blue chair, joined by a tiny resting dog on the chair opposite. The room the two inhabit is full of similar blue furniture, illuminated by the light coming through thinly-veiled windows. The little girl, dressed in white lace and tartan, rests with a hand behind her head—seemingly restless, or perhaps taking a break from the goings-on of the day.

Clarissa

Childe Hassam

1912

Oil on canvas

31.5 x 28.3 in.

Private Collection

A little girl sits alone in an elegant yellow foyer. Pots of yellow flowers sit atop a bookcase and a wooden side table, and a few paintings adorn the walls. The young Clarissa wears a simple white frock, and her short auburn hair is adorned with two bows. Her feet dangle off of a mahogany chair, and a single yellow flower is held, halfheartedly, by her side. Clarissa’s face is mostly hidden from view—her gaze is instead fixed toward the dim staircase in the back of the scene, its focus unknown.

Thérèse Dreaming

Balthus (Balthasar Klossowski)

1938

Oil on canvas

59 x 51 in.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art - 1999.363.2

Thérèse Blanchard, a frequent model of Balthus’, is seen here in a very relaxed, and one might say provocative, position. She sits back on a satin green pillow, one of her legs propped up on her seat—blatantly exposing her underwear and inner thighs. Her hands rest on top of her head, and her face puts off a healthy, youthful glow. Her surroundings seem carefully arranged, and a grey cat crouches in the foreground of the scene, lapping up milk from a saucer. Thérèse eyes are closed, and her brow seems almost furrowed, as if she is troubled by some incomprehensible thought.

Vermeer and His Women

During the seventeenth century, there was a shift in the type of paintings that were being created 
in the Netherlands. The Thirty-years war had come to an end and the Netherlands had finally 
gained their independence from Spain. Unlike when they were at war with Spain, the 
Netherlands began to find more interest in their leisure and day-to-day lives. Paintings began to
 represent their domestic values as a cornerstone of an ideal society. According to Majorie 
Wismeaner, “the family and domestic virtue (rather than allegiance to church or monarch) were
 prized as the cornerstone of a successful society, and  indeed became a metaphor for the nation
 itself.”

Vermeer transitioned from painting ordinary and common life to capturing a more elegant and 
refined lifestyle because the wealthy merchant class was more likely to purchase these paintings. 
Still, in all of Vermeer’s paintings we see that in all his depictions of women he gives them grace 
and dignity as well as elevates women who possess the lowliest of stations. He welcomes us to 
view these women in all the different tasks that they perform. Come and see if Vermeer doesn’t 
convey these things to you in the following works here on display. 

 Young Woman with a Water Pitcher 

Artist: Johannes Vermeer 

Date: ca. 1662

Medium: Oil on canvas 18 x 16 in. 

Met: 89.15.21

Vermeer seems to have captured a young woman holding a metallic pitcher and standing in the 
corner of a room. She is surrounded by objects that She is wearing a voluminous white head 
covering that frames her face as it rests delicately on her shoulders. In addition to this she has on
a dark navy blue skirt with a gold and black bodice that gives a bell shape to her body. This and 
the many objects that can be found around her show her elevated status and the dignity that she 
possesses.  

A Maid Asleep 

Johannes Vermeer 

Date: ca. 1656-57

Medium: Oil on canvas 34 1/2 x 30 1/8 in.  

Met: 14.40.611

This piece depicts a maid sitting at a table in a darkened room resting her head in her hand. She 
is surrounded by beautiful things. Tapestries and fruits that show she is a provider and her job is 
essential. This maid represents the ideal in the domestic work that she performs. Even though she 
is in the act of resting she is in a position ready to move or possibly she has finished all her work 
for the day and is resting from the hard days' work. 

Young Woman with a Lute 

Johannes Vermeer 

Date: ca. 1662-63 20 1/4 x 18 in.

Medium: Oil on canvas 

Met:25.110.24

Here we see a young woman in yellow dress, wearing a pearl necklace and earrings playing her 
lute as she looks out her window to the street below. On the wall behind her there is a map of the 
world. The beautiful and expensive things point to the fact that she is wealthy and has time to sit
 and play her lute. During this time, wealthy young women studied music as part of their 
education. These things point to her high status and the dignity that comes with it.

The Milkmaid 

Johannes Vermeer  

Date: c. 1660

Medium: Oil on canvas  h 45.5 cm × w 41 cm

Rijlsmuseum: SK-A-2344

The woman in this painting is a kitchen maid, found in a nearly bare room pouring milk into a 
pot. Her outfit is simple, made for working in. The objects that can be found in the room is a foot 
warmer on the floor behind the woman, a couple of baskets hanging on the wall, and a table with 
a blue table cloth, basket of bread, as well as a jar and pot which the milk is being poured into. 
Her dignity is not given to her because of her class standing, it is given in her domestic virtue that 
is on display.

 

The Lacemaker 

Johannes Vermeer 

Date: 1669-1670

Medium: Oil Paint 9”x 8”

Louvre: no ascension 

Here we see a young woman, dressed in yellow leaning over her lacework concentrating hard on 
the task at hand. To the left of the painting there is a pin cushion that holds her pins. The focus of 
the viewer is on the woman due to the plain wall that is the background. Vermeer's use of light 
draws us in to look at the task that is being performed. This young woman is consumed with the 
domestic task that is placed before her.

  

Pessimistic Romanticism: Thomas Cole's Unique Twist

The 19^th century movement of Romanticism was characterized by an emphasis on the sublime. Romantics believed moral development came as one took in the awesome force of nature. Thomas Cole was an American painter who had a monumental role in developing Romanticism in America. The English-born artist helped give American Romanticism its start in America as well as developing a unique twist the movement that differentiated American works from European works. Thomas Cole’s works were focused more on the nature itself, lacking the obvious human presence in European pieces of the time. Additionally, Cole’s work added to the sublime feeling of nature common to Romanticism a sense of desolation and ruin. In works such as his Course of Empire series, The Titan’s Goblet, The Oxbow, and The Mountain Ford there is a sense of loss and dangerous tension. Cole’s work differed from European Romantic works such as The Hay Wain and Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog that emphasized man’s place in and with nature. Cole’s more forbidding pieces seem to argue that these European works are naïve in their assumption that nature is something man can reason with and live in. Both Cole and his European contemporaries agree on the superiority of nature, but Cole is more pessimistic – viewing nature as a mysterious, wild force that may or may not cooperate. His development of Romanticism in America went on to inspire other Americans to imitate his interpretation of the movement, with works such as Durand’s Landscape—Scene from "Thanatopsis" echoing man’s transience in face of nature.

The Oxbow, Thomas Cole, 1836, Oil on canvas, 51 1/2 x 76 in, Met: 08.228

This piece by Thomas Cole was made three years after the completion of The Titan’s Goblet. The landscape painting reinforces the sentiments made in The Titan’s Goblet that differ from European Romanticists. While there is a human presence – the painter recording the scene and scattered bits of human settlement on the right – the main focus is the wildness of the untamed land on the left. The human presence is in the background, while the power of the wild is tangibly present. Humanity appears small and insignificant before the mighty storm. This painting does seem to offer a bit of an optimistic view, perhaps suggesting that man is destined to cultivate the seemingly uncultivatable. However, Cole will expand on this idea of human cultivation in a pessimistic way in other paintings. His main ideas of nature’s ferocity and difference from humanity is present in this painting – there is a tension between the two.

The Mountain Ford, Thomas Cole, 1846, 28 1/4 x 40 1/16 in., Oil on canvas, Met: 15.30.63 

The Mountain Ford furthers Cole’s arguments in The Titan’s Goblet and The Oxbow and also differs from European Romantics. The painting focuses on the dark, looming mountain in the distance, with the human rider small and uncertain before the mysterious wilderness. Once again we see Cole shift Romanticism to an even more nature focused view, with man playing a subordinate side role. Nature is presented as unfathomable and overwhelming. The rider, despite his bright white horse and rich red attire, seems insignificant before the simple but staggering wilderness of black and green. Nature presides.

The Course of Empire: Desolation, Thomas Cole, 1836, 39 1/4 x 63 1/4 in., Oil on canvas, Wikiart

The final entry in Cole’s The Course of Empire series, this work most obviously mirrors The Titan’s Goblet and expands on the arguments of The Oxbow and The Mountain Ford. The series depicts how humanity settled nature, developed an imperial civilization from a pastoral one, and then destroyed itself with war. This final painting shows nature recovering over man’s ruin. Nature exists before man and exists afterwards. The transience of man and the permanence of nature is highlighted. Drawing upon The Oxbow and The Mountain Ford, we see that man’s initial discovery of nature (The Mountain Ford) and their pastoral settling of the land (The Oxbow) will ultimately result in Desolation. The Titan’s Goblet may be seen as the cycle restarting, as new explorers settle upon the ruins of a past civilization. Cole’s The Course of Empire series is a pessimistic critique of humanity’s expansion and an exaltation of nature’s superiority.

Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, Caspar David Friedrich, 1818, 3′ 1″ x 2′ 5″, Oil on canvas, Wikiart 

This notable Romantic piece by German Caspar David Friedrich differs from Cole’s works and sentiments. The wanderer is made the focus of the painting, with the landscape set before and below him. Nature is still mysterious and vast, but there is a greater sense of understanding between man and nature. There is admiration and awe, but less of Cole’s fear and wildness. The wanderer leans confidently on his cane, optimistic about understanding and exploring the vastness. The European Romantic painting lacks the fear and tension of The Oxbow and The Mountain Ford as well as the sense of doom and inevitable destruction of Desolation and hinted at in The Titan’s Goblet. 

The Hay Wain, John Constable, 1821, 51 ¹⁄4 in × 73 in., Oil on canvas, Wikiart

John Constable’s work depicts a rural English setting featuring a bucolic cottage and farmer guiding his wagon across a river. The painting shows a union between humanity and nature. The idyllic scene ignores the reality of the Industrial Revolution and argues that man may work with and in nature without there being conflict between the two. While Cole does portray pastoral scenes similar to this one in The Oxbow and his Course of Empire series, humanity’s presence is far off and distanced from the nature. Additionally, Constable’s piece lacks the ever-present tension between man and nature in Cole’s works. Constable view nature and humanity as close and harmonious, whereas Cole warns against man’s corrupt and transient nature before an incomprehensible wild. Cole takes the European Romantic tenets but adds a unique twist.

Landscape—Scene from "Thanatopsis", Asher Brown Durand, 1850, Oil on canvas,   Met: 11.156

Durand’s painting is evidence of Cole’s influence in shaping Romanticism in America. This landscape scene draws from Cole’s themes of nature’s permanence and humanity’s cycle from pastoral settlement to urbanized settlement to desolation. The human presence is diminutive before the vast wilderness in the background. The funeral service and ruins in the foreground remind us of man’s transience and nature’s inevitable ability to reclaim and endure. There is an acknowledgment that though man will keep on cultivating, nature will always reign above, waiting to reclaim its territory once desolation occurs. With this work, Durand furthers Coles American Romanticism. The cycle is beginning anew. Just as the intrepid explorers of The Titan’s Goblet crawl over the massive chalice, Durand’s farmer begins the pastoral process which will lead to desolation of man and an unchanged nature.