The Flemish Madonna Lactans and Saint Bernard's Milk

 

Mary, one of the most venerated characters in all of scripture, has fascinated and captivated the hearts of many Christians throughout history. Whether it’s her humble submission to the will of the Lord, her faithful obedience, the many ponderings in her heart, or her beautiful  Magnificat, Mary’s character is rich with theological depth. She is a powerful example and reminder to every Christian of the relationship between God and his people. Even more so, the womanhood of Mary completes the humanity of Christ. Through her pregnancy, birth, and lactation, Christ can fully embody the humanity of both women and men. 

Her story and the importance of her femininity are captured in many artworks since the medieval period. One specific category is called the Madonna Lactans, which highlights Mary nursing Jesus. These paintings grew in popularity in 14th-century Italy, particularly because of the story of St. Bernard and his devotion to Mary that resulted in a vision of her squirting her breastmilk to him as a symbol of spiritual nourishment. However, these paintings caused controversy over how Mary’s breast should be shown and represented. In many of the paintings in this exhibit, you’ll notice many naturalistic representations of her breasts. This shows a shift from her less naturalistic representation in the 14th-century Italian Renaissance thanks to the work of Joos van Cleve and Jan Gossaert. 

Joos van Cleve, Virgin and Child, Netherlandish ca. 1525

This is a Flemish piece by Joos van Cleve that shows Mary’s naturalistic “one bare breast” that appears in other 15th century Flemish art. However, for fear of being too naturalistic, her breast is not in the correct anatomical position in order to de-sexualize the image. The landscape in the background of the painting is a reminder of Mary and Joseph’s flight to Egypt after the birth of Jesus and many of the objects scattered in the painting are meant to be reminders of salvation, including the book that Mary holds that is open to the beginning of the De Profundis, the Gloria Patri, and the closing of the Magnificat. This painting would have been kept in a home as a model of virtuous family life and a loving mother and child.

Follower of Robert Campin, The Virgin and Child before a Firescreen, ca. 1440

In association with many of the miraculous stories of Mary’s life, the three drops of breastmilk in this painting can either be interpreted as an “invitation to meditate on Christ’s incarnation and sacrifice” or as the three jets of breastmilk that Mary gave to Saint Bernard in a vision. Mary is placed in a wealthy flemish home wearing a royal dress–indicating she is the queen of heaven. Additionally, Christ’s genitals are not covered in order to demonstrate the full humanity of Christ and his vulnerability as an unclothed child.

Jan van Eyck. Lucca Madonna, ca. 1436. Frankfurt am Main, Stadel Museum, inv. No. 944, picture no. 7143

This is another Flemish piece that makes Mary’s breast more naturalistic and less modest than it would have been in Italian paintings. Jesus’s position intentionally lets the viewer see the breast even though Jesus is partially latched. Mary is presented as the queen of heaven again in her regal robes and poshly decorated netherlandish room. Jesus also holds a piece of fruit which is another common object in this series. Unfortunately, scholars aren’t sure who commissioned this painting or what it was used for, which makes it difficult to determine whether Mary and Jesus are set in an ecclesiastical space or a domestic space.

Palma Master. The Lactation of Saint Bernard, 1290. Palma, Museu de Mallorca, inv. no. DA05-09-0028.

This painting was the first to picture the story of St. Bernard and the jet of milk from Mary. After praying in front of a statue of Mary and saying “Ave Maris Stella,” he received a vision and the statue came to life. He said “show yourself to be a mother” and she squirted three jets of milk into his mouth. Using a gothic style that was most popular in Aragon and Catalonia, the style appears to have more of a French influence than Italian. It was an altarpiece by Pedro Nicolau painted for a convent, and it began a series of images often found in illuminations that were dedicated to Saint Bernard. 

Simon Marmion, Saint Bernard’s Vision of the Virgin and Child, ca. 1475-1480. Getty Museum collection.

This image came from a devotional book to help illuminate the legend of Saint Bernard (1090-1153). The words that he spoke to the statue are inscribed at the top of the painting in Latin and the scene is set as Saint Bernard watches them come to life. Painted with gold and tempera paint in Northern France, Simon Marmion was a Flemish artist who did work on illuminated manuscripts. In this painting, Saint Bernard is closest to the viewer and this helps the viewer to experience the perspective of Saint Bernard in his story. The purpose of this story in a prayer book would have been to remember God as the ultimate source of life and model after the humility and faith of Saint Bernard.

References

 Jutta Sperling. “Squeezing, Squirting, Spilling Milk: The Lactation of Saint Bernard and the Flemish Madonna Lactans (ca. 1430–1530).” Renaissance Quarterly 71, no. 3 (2018): 881. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26561012.

Megan Holmes, “Disrobing the Virgin: The Madonna Lactans in Fifteenth-Century Florentine Art,” in Geraldine A. Johnson and Sara F. Matthews Grieco, eds, Picturing Women in Renaissance and Baroque Italy (Cambridge, 1997), 167–95.

Medieval and Renaissance Lactations : Images, Rhetorics, Practices, edited by Jutta Gisela Sperling, Taylor & Francis Group, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ccl/detail.action?docID=4512356.

 Guy C. Bauman. "The Jack and Belle Linsky Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art: Addenda to the Catalogue." Metropolitan Museum Journal 21 (1986): 154–59.

Leeflang, Micha. “‘Was Ihr wollt.’ Joos van Cleves Werkstatt und der Kunstmarkt.” In Joos

van Cleve: Leonardo des Nordens (2011), 132–55.

 “The Virgin and Child before a Firescreen.” n.d. The National Gallery. https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/follower-of-robert-campin-the-virgin-and-child-before-a-firescreen.

 Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, "Jan van Eyck, Lucca Madonna," in Smarthistory, June 11, 2025, accessed December 1, 2025, https://smarthistory.org/jan-van-eyck-lucca-madonna/.

 Bauer, D. (2015). MILK AS TEMPLAR APOLOGETICS IN THE ST. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX ALTARPIECE FROM MAJORCA. Studies in Iconography, 36, 79. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44735519

 “Saint Bernard’s Vision of the Virgin and Child.” n.d. Getty Museum Collection. https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/108E4F.

American Ideal: A Walk Through the Life and Work of Early America's Favorite Artist

    Winslow Homer is among the most prolific American artists, often referred to as the most American painter, or purely a national American. His body of work is expansive and encompasses many American ideals, spanning from honoring depictions of rural Americans, to depictions of the powerful forces of nature. His images have become beautiful representations of American life and culture. 

    He began as a printmaker before working as an artists correspondent for Harper’s Weekly, an illustrated journal. During this time he captured many scenes from the civil war and from the life of soldiers in battle. This became a deeply compelling subject matter to him so in 1861 when he began oil painting, he continued to depict scenes of what it was to live in war. These images became famous in their right for the reality with which he showed these soldiers. He began his oil painting career with these paintings. 

    In the 1870’s he continued to be a printmaker as his profession but began producing more and more oil paintings, building his reputation as a painter. He was known for his scenes of everyday American life, often showing children playing, women calling for dinner, or young boys out at sea. His images now are seen as classic images of American life, and even at the time they were praised as such.

    During the 1880’s Homer receded and began to paint in solitude. During this time his subject matter shifts to much more dramatic depictions of man against nature. He painted lots of images of crashing waves and of treacherous boat voyages, wanting to show the power of the natural world. During this time he moved from New York to Maine and found inspiration there. 

    In his later life he took trips to the tropics: Florida and the Caribbean. There he produced beautiful watercolors which take on a different tone than his heavy, darker oil paintings. His interest in people and nature remained during these trips, creating beautiful depictions of Caribbean life and landscape. 

The Army of the Potomac – A Sharp-Shooter on Picket Duty (from "Harper's Weekly," Vol. VII)

November 15, 1862

Wood engraving

image: 9 1/8 x 13 3/4 in. (23.1 x 35 cm) sheet: 10 11/16 x 16 1/8 in. (27.2 x 40.9 cm)

29.88.3(5)

This is an earlier example of the magazine illustrations that Homer was doing. It depicts a young Union soldier aiming a rifle from his perch in a tree. It is an excellent image of the sorts of things that Homer was trying to capture. This wood engraving has an oil painting counterpart done by Homer painted after the print. It is a testament to his skill at capturing the small moments of war that go unseen. He was a truly American artist depicting very American wars.

Rainy Day in Camp

1871
Oil on canvas
20 x 36 in. (50.8 x 91.4 cm)
23.77.1

This is one of Homer’s later war camp paintings. It is still early in his oil painting career but clearly shares the inspiration of his many prints. These were among the types of paintings that people considered to be so nationally American. It was painted 6 years after the end of the civil war from sketches that Homer did while he was assigned to the unit depicted, the Sixty-First New York Volunteer Infantry. The scene shows the miserable conditions that soldiers of the civil war lived in, depicting five soldiers huddled around a pot cooking over a fire in the middle of army tents and tied up horses.

The Cotton Pickers

1876

Oil on canvas

24 1/16 × 38 1/8 in. (61.12 × 96.84 cm)

This is one of Homer’s most prolific images representing the post-slave emancipation economy. He was known for painting black figures in a very humanizing way. As seen in his later works as well, he was fascinated by issues of race and so often rendered these beautiful portraits about haunting truths for black Americans both before and after the slave trade. This object depicts two black women in ragged clothing picking cotton in a field. They carry large sacks for their work and expressions that show all the pain that they have endured.

Breezing Up (A Fair Wind)

1873–76

Oil on canvas

24 3/16 x 38 3/16 in. (61.5 x 97 cm)

Breezing Up is a painting of four young men sailing a boat on smooth waters. There is a fair wind and the boys are relaxed, holding the rudder comfortably in hand and confident about their place on the water. This is an early example of a subject that Homer would continue to explore: men and the sea. This particular object was seen as a representation of the confident and hopeful future of the nation at the time. The winds were fair, the sailors were competent and there were good things ahead.

Native Hut at Nassau

1885

Watercolor and graphite on wove paper

14 1/2 x 21 15/16 in. (36.8 x 53.2 cm)

In the early 1880’s Homer began his trips to the Bahamas. There he developed a watercolor portfolio with images that fit comfortably into his regular subject matter. He was interested in representing the Black communities in the Bahamas and the effects they were facing of the long lasting effects of slavery. Homer is still appealing to American audiences with this rendering of a hut at Nassau. The painting is of a small white hut with a thatched roof surrounded by lush foliage. It is in a way giving a beautiful face to painful relationships with slavery.

Shark Fishing

1885

Watercolor on paper

13 7/8 x 20 in. (35.2 x 50.8 cm)

This is another watercolor done by Homer during his time in the Bahamas. It is another poignant example of his fascination with the fight between man and nature as well as a look into the lives of these Black Bahamian fishermen. He often will depict fishermen at sea, and particularly sharks as we will see in his later work. This image is of two Black Bahamian fishermen on calm waters, wrestling a shark they have caught in their net. It is a continued testimony to Homer’s interest in post-war black communities and the fight they share with everyone else against the powerful ocean.

The Gulf Stream

1899; reworked by 1906

Oil on canvas

28 1/8 x 49 1/8 in. (71.4 x 124.8 cm)

Object Number: 06.1234

This is one of Homer’s later oil paintings that best encapsulates what drove his art for much of his life. It is of a black man laying on a boat with a broken mast in tumultuous, shark infested waters. His use of color and light gives a heavy and threatening feeling to the piece. It is very similar compositionally to Breezing Up but provides a very different emotion with it. Breezing Up is the hope for the American people while The Gulf Stream  has a kind of intensity that is more evoking of his fascination with man’s battle against the natural world. The use of the Black figure is also continuing his dialogue about the struggles for post-war Black communities and their battle for a better future.

Men and Women Together as the Faces of Art

 

The cultural view of the roles of men and women in society are ever changing through time and from place to place. Art history has always been integral in understanding past and foreign cultures and what was expected of the people within. Domestic scenes of husband and wife are a particular focus that can be observed in art from early history. Families that were depicted together were often seen as much more powerful than a lone individual, and would invite the viewers to interpret pieces differently, based on their own role in a family. Depending on the present culture and time period, an audience could also be more or less inclined to react positively to the ideas introduced in a particular piece. The same painting could evoke fear or anger for one and awe and respect in another.

These following works (1630s-1820s) communicate different expectations for men and women, mostly husbands and wives, using both outside context and formal choices.

The Abduction of the Sabine Women

Nicolas Poussin

1633-34

Oil on canvas

46.160

                The story of the Sabine women should have ended in despair and loss. But when the Sabine men rallied together to reclaim their daughters and wives, the women protested against any fighting, because they actually loved their new homes. This painting is meant to recall the entirety of the story while only depicting an early scene from before Rome became a great nation. From a man’s perspective, he may see this painting as communicating the necessity of the women for the population of the city. From a woman’s view, she would immediately recognize the fear etched on each captured face and the overwhelming chaos of the scene, but she may look closer and notice a sense of unity spoken through the repetition of the upward and outstretched hand of at least two women and two men. This painting is a good example of broken relationships between men and women, while also containing subtext that points to the continued story.

 The Garter

Jean Francois de Troy

1724

Oil on canvas

2019.141.22

The garter belt as an undergarment was meant to be a private item worn by a woman under her skirt. The interaction between these two people implies that they are not married, similar to the subjects in de Troy’s The Declaration of Love. This seems to reference the courtly love tradition of medieval Europe, in which two individuals who were not married to each other would pursue a romantic relationship (though usually not sexual). The woman’s choice to fix her slipped garter not in the privacy of a restroom or some private place does not match well with her rejection of the gentleman’s advance to assist her. We can see that this relationship is also broken, as there are desires displayed here that should not be, yet temptation is allowed to remain.

The Consecration of the Emperor Napoleon and the Coronation of the Empress Joséphine

Jacques-Louis David

Oil on canvas

1804

The Louvre Museum in Paris

            The coronation of the emperor Napoleon Bonaparte would have been one of the most extravagant celebrations the people of France had seen in years. This particular scene shows off a power-move by a very significant power-couple of the time, as it was both traditional and unorthodox. Napoleon decided to perform the ceremony himself, crowning both himself and his wife, in an act of removing their power from the authority of the church. This painting captures a shaft of light falling upon the empress Josephine as she receives her crown, highlighting a sort of angelic grace that was thought to befit a young woman of consequence at that time. Napoleon’s strong posture is not hidden by all his regalia, and his reportedly deficient stature is not apparent. This couple’s strengths are illuminated in this painting, almost romanticizing their rise to power.

The Public Viewing David’s “Coronation” at the Louvre

Louis Leopold Boilly

Oil on canvas

1810

2012.156

The fascination of the common people in regards to the previous work is likely due to the fact that many of them would not have been able to witness such a spectacle in real time. Both men and women are pictured here, possibly for a family outing, viewing and likely commenting on David’s monstrous recreation of the ceremony. There is a very common and united feel to this painting, as if they as viewers are all equal with each other, but that we as viewers of this painting and the “Coronation” are equal with them as well. The presence of children is also apparent here, as their fascination with the novelty of a coronation celebration years after its occurrence is also intriguing.

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier and Marie Anne Lavoisier

Jacques-Louis David

Oil on canvas

1788

1977.10

            Antoine Lavoisier is likely more recognized by his name, for his immense contributions to the world of science, than his is recognized for his face. But here we see an almost-candid portrait of himself and his wife, Marie Anne. This power couple collaborated on many successful works of scientific literature together. Antoine was also a nominal politician (which got him in a deal of trouble), but his life’s work was dedicated to chemistry and the study of combustion and the makeup of water. Marie created illustrations for his books, with detailed diagrams and pictorial formulas. These two are shown as near equals, with Marie attracting attention in the light while also creating contrast for Antoine to stand out in the painting. They worked together even after Antoine’s execution during the Reign of Terror, as Marie continued to illustrate and publish his writings.

Brigand and His Wife in Prayer

Leopold Robert

Oil on canvas

1824

2003.42.50

Amongst the previous high-class individuals painted, stands this couple, middle-class and likely anxiously anticipating an addition to their family. The quietness of these two hints at the uncertainty of their future, as well as their faith as they pray before shrine. They likely lived in the mountains, and did not have much to live on, as most brigands resorted to crime in order to provide for their families. However, their devotion to each other and their religion can be felt through the comfortingly warm, dark colors in this painting. As they pray together, there is a mutual respect evident between the two as well.

Presence of God in the Wilderness: Motherhood and Being an Outcast

 There have been many depictions of motherhood, Christ, and Hagar and Ishmael made throughout art history. We are almost too familiar with these subjects and see them often in life, even when we are not looking at famous artworks. We see a mother holding a baby, and think of the Madonna and Child in its numerous variations. We see a man with outstretched arms, and think of Christ on the cross. The first image evokes compassion and love, while the second may cause us to lament while still hopeful. They are images of motherly love and sacrifice, respectively—where else do we see motherly love combined with suffering and being outcast? Depictions of Hagar and Ishmael having been cast out into the wilderness can show us the juxtaposition of a loving mother and a brutal landscape. Hagar and Ishmael are cast out by Abraham to wander in the wilderness, abandoned by their household. We can see echoes of this story and the story of Christ’s sacrifice. Christ chose to be outcast from his Father and his people to show the world that he is the Lord of outcasts. In fact, Hagar is the one who named God “El Roi,” the God who sees me. By looking at artworks depicting Hagar, Christ, and mothers with their children, we can generate a response of gratefulness toward a God who became and outcast in order to love the outcasts—widows, orphans, and the poor.

Francesco Maffei, Hagar and the Angel, 1657, Oil on canvas, 41 3/4 x 54 in. (106 x 137.2 cm). 2012.100.1.

This painting depicts Hagar being comforted by an angel in the wilderness. Maffei paints the figures in an exaggerated, manneristic style inspired by Venetian paintings. Hagar looks up at the angel imploringly with her hands outstretched, while the angel looks down at her with an expression of concern. Together, they create a kind of right triangle with the angel at the top and Hagar’s pleading hands in the negative space. While Ishmael is absent from this painting, we know he is there in context and that Hagar is desperate to care for her son. The angel will lead her to water, acting as a comforting presence in the wilderness Hagar finds herself in.

Hagar and Ishmael, Russian, 18th c., Glazed pottery, 8 1/4 x 6 1/4 in. (21.0 x 15.9 cm). 14.96.1.

This pottery tile was made in the Dutch style and decorated Alexander Menshikov’s palace outside of St. Petersburg. It employs a stylized, graphic visual language and limited color palette that simplifies the story of Hagar and Ishmael. The figures are centered and looking at each other. Hagar feeds Ishmael, likely at the sacrifice of her own needs. They are surrounded by a sparse landscape of two trees, one of which arches over the figures. We might argue that this tree represents God’s watchfulness over Hagar and Ishmael, even as Hagar watches over her son.

Elizabeth Catlett, Mother and Child, 1944, lithograph, 12 3/8 × 9 1/2 in. (31.4 × 24.1 cm). 1999.529.34.

This print by Elizabeth Catlett evokes imagery of Mary and Jesus that we have in our visual archive. The mother practically encircles her baby, providing protection with her whole body. The monochrome nature of the lithograph print gives us a feeling of darkness and concern in the lives of these people, as though providing for her baby is difficult for this mother. Catlett also talks about the importance of representing Black motherhood in her artwork and it is a recurring theme in her work.

Camille Corot, Hagar in the Wilderness, 1835, Oil on canvas, 71 x 106 1/2 in. (180.3 x 270.5 cm). 38.64.

This painting is a striking depiction of the absolute despair of Hagar’s story. Hagar and Ishmael are just small figures against a vast, bleak landscape—we might hardly notice them before we look at the details of the land. We might start at the blue-purple sky and follow the horizon (noticing the angel) toward Hagar with her hands toward the sky and Ishmael lying hungry at her feet. Despite a hopeless looking situation, the angel is soaring in and will soon come to their aid.

Moretto da Brescia, Christ in the Wilderness, 1515-20, Oil on canvas, 18 x 21 3/4 in. (45.7 x 55.2 cm). 11.53.

This depiction of Christ’s trial in the wilderness after his baptism is perhaps unrealistically peaceful, yet it still bears similarities to Hagar’s story. Here, Christ convenes with woodland animals, almost Pan-like, but we know from the biblical stories that he was tested by Satan. Like Hagar, he is wandering, and like Hagar, he is comforted by angels while he is there. This is one of many examples of Christ putting himself in the shoes of the outcast and suffering of whom he is the Lord.